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    <title>Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework</title>
    <ownerName>Douglas C. Engelbart</ownerName>
    <dateCreated>August 29, 2001</dateCreated>
    <dateModified>October 1962</dateModified>
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    <outline hs:nid="0499" text="AUGMENTING HUMAN INTELLECT: A Conceptual Framework.&lt;br /&gt;By Douglas C. Engelbart.&lt;br /&gt;October 1962.">
    <outline hs:nid="01" text="I. INTRODUCTION">
      <outline hs:nid="02" text="A. GENERAL">
        <outline hs:nid="03" text="By &quot;augmenting human intellect&quot; we mean increasing the capability of a man to approach a complex problem situation, to gain comprehension to suit his particular needs, and to derive solutions to problems. Increased capability in this respect is taken to mean a mixture of the following: more-rapid comprehension, better comprehension, the possibility of gaining a useful degree of comprehension in a situation that previously was too complex, speedier solutions, better solutions, and the possibility of finding solutions to problems that before seemed insoluble. And by &quot;complex situations&quot; we include the professional problems of diplomats, executives, social scientists, life scientists, physical scientists, attorneys, designers--whether the problem situation exists for twenty minutes or twenty years. We do not speak of isolated clever tricks that help in particular situations.  We refer to a way of life in an integrated domain where hunches, cut-and-try, intangibles, and the human &quot;feel for a situation&quot; usefully co-exist with powerful concepts, streamlined terminology and notation, sophisticated methods, and high-powered electronic aids."/>
        <outline hs:nid="04" text="Man's population and gross product are increasing at a considerable rate, but the &lt;i&gt;complexity&lt;/i&gt; of his problems grows still faster, and the &lt;i&gt;urgency&lt;/i&gt; with which solutions must be found becomes steadily greater in response to the increased rate of activity and the increasingly global nature of that activity. Augmenting man's intellect, in the sense defined above, would warrant full pursuit by an enlightened society if there could be shown a reasonable approach and some plausible benefits."/>
        <outline hs:nid="05" text="This report covers the first phase of a program aimed at developing means to augment the human intellect. These &quot;means&quot; can include many things--all of which appear to be but extensions of means developed andused in the past to help man apply his native sensory, mental, and motor capabilities--and we consider the whole system of a human and his augmentation means as a proper field of search for practical possibilities. It is a very important system to our society, and like most systems its performance can best be improved by considering the whole as a set of interacting components rather than by considering the components in isolation."/>
        <outline hs:nid="06" text="This kind of system approach to human intellectual effectiveness does not find a ready-made conceptual framework such as exists for established disciplines. Before a research program can be designed to pursue such an approach intelligently, so that practical benefits might be derived within a reasonable time while also producing results of longrange significance, a conceptual framework must be searched out--a framework that provides orientation as to the important factors of the system, the relationships among these factors, the types of change among the system factors that offer likely improvements in performance, and the sort of research goals and methodology that seem promising.&lt;a href=&quot;#Notes-1-1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt;"/>
        <outline hs:nid="07" text="In the first (search) phase of our program we have developed a conceptual framework that seems satisfactory for the current needs of designing a research phase. Section II contains the essence of this framework as derived from several different ways of looking at the system made up of a human and his intellect-augmentation means."/>
        <outline hs:nid="08" text="The process of developing this conceptual framework brought out a number of significant realizations: that the intellectual effectiveness exercised today by a given human has little likelihood of being intelligence limited--that there are dozens of disciplines in engineering, mathematics, and the social, life, and physical sciences that can contribute improvements to the system of intellect-augmentation means; that any one such improvement can be expected to trigger a chain of coordinatingimprovements; that until every one of these disciplines comes to a standstill and we have exhausted all the improvement possibilities we could glean from it, we can expect to continue to develop improvements in this human-intellect system; that there is no particular reason not to expect gains in personal intellectual effectiveness from a concerted systemoriented approach that compare to those made in personal geographic mobility since horseback and sailboat days."/>
        <outline hs:nid="09" text="The picture of how one can view the possibilities for a systematic approach to increasing human intellectual effectiveness, as put forth in Section II in the sober and general terms of an initial basic analysis, does not seem to convey all of the richness and promise that was stimulated by the development of that picture. Consequently, Section III is intended to present some definite images that illustrate meaningful possibilities deriveable from the conceptual framework presented in Section II--and in a rather marked deviation from ordinary technical writing, a good portion of Section III presents these images in a fiction-dialogue style as a mechanism for transmitting a feeling for the richness and promise of the possibilities in one region of the improvement space&quot; that is roughly mapped in Section II."/>
        <outline hs:nid="010" text="The style of Section III seems to make for easier reading. If Section II begins to seem unrewardingly difficult, the reader may find it helpful to skip from Section II-B directly to Section III. If it serves its purpose well enough, Section III will provide a context within which the reader can go back and finish Section II with less effort."/>
        <outline hs:nid="011" text="In Section IV (Research Recommendations) we present a general strategy for pursuing research toward increasing human intellectual effectiveness.  This strategy evolved directly from the concepts presented in Sections II and III; one of its important precepts is to pursue the quickest gains first, and use the increased intellectual effectiveness thus derived to help pursue successive gains. We see the quickest gains emerging from (1) giving the human the minute-by-minute services of a digital computer equipped with computer-driven cathode-ray-tube display, and (2) developing the new methods of thinking and working that allow the human to capitalizeupon the computer's help. By this same strategy, we recommend that an initial research effort develop a prototype system of this sort aimed at increasing human effectiveness in the task of computer programming."/>
        <outline hs:nid="012" text="To give the reader an initial orientation about what sort of thing this computer-aided working system might be, we include below a short description of a possible system of this sort. This illustrative example is not to be considered a description of the actual system that will emerge from the program. It is given only to show the general direction of the work, and is clothed in fiction only to make it easier to visualize."/>
        <outline hs:nid="013" text="Let us consider an augmented architect at work. He sits at a working station that has a visual display screen some three feet on a side; this is his working surface, and is controlled by a computer (his &quot;clerk&quot; ) with which he can communicate by means of a small keyboard and various other devices."/>
        <outline hs:nid="014" text="He is designing a building. He has already dreamed up several basic layouts and structural forms, and is trying them out on the screen. The surveying data for the layout he is working on now have already been entered, and he has just coaxed the clerk to show him a perspective view of the steep hillside building site with the roadway above, symbolic representations of the various trees that are to remain on the lot, and the service tie points for the different utilities. The view occupies the left two-thirds of the screen. With a &quot;pointer,&quot; he indicates two points of interest, moves his left hand rapidly over the keyboard, and the distance and elevation between the points indicated appear on the right- hand third of the screen."/>
        <outline hs:nid="015" text="Now he enters a reference line with his pointer, and the keyboard. Gradually the screen begins to show the work he is doing--a neat excavation appears in the hillside) revises itself slightly, and revises itself again. After a moment, the architect changes the scene on the screen to an overhead plan view of the site, still showing the excavation. A few minutes of study, and he enters on the keyboard a list of items, checking each one as it appears on the screen, to be studied later."/>
        <outline hs:nid="016" text="Ignoring the representation on the display, the architect next begins to enter a series of specifications and data--a six-inch slab floor, twelve-inch concrete walls eight feet high within the excavation, and so on. When he has finished, the revised scene appears on the screen. A structure is taking shape. He examines it, adjusts it, pauses long enough to ask for handbook or catalog information from the clerk at various points, and reacijusts accordingly. He often recalls from the &quot;clerk&quot; his working lists of specifications and considerations to refer to them, modify them, or add to them. These lists grow into an evermore-detailed, interlinked structure, which represents the maturing thought behind the actual design."/>
        <outline hs:nid="017" text="Prescribing different planes here and there, curved surfaces occasionally, and moving the whole structure about five feet, he finally has the rough external form of the building balanced nicely with the setting and he is assured that this form is basically compatible with the materials to be used as well as with the function of the building."/>
        <outline hs:nid="018" text="Now he begins to enter detailed information about the interior. Here the capability of the clerk to show him any view he wants to examine (a slice of the interior, or how the structure would look from the roadway above) is important. He enters particular fixture designs, and examines them in a particular room. He checks to make sure that sun glare from the windows will not blind a driver on the roadway, and the &quot;clerk&quot; computes the information that one window will reflect strongly onto the roadway between 6 and 6:30 on midsummer mornings."/>
        <outline hs:nid="019" text="Next he begins a functional analysis. He has a list of the people who will occupy this building, and the daily sequences of their activtites.  The &quot;clerk&quot; allows him to follow each in turn, examining how doors swing, where special lighting might be needed. Finally he has the &quot;clerk&quot; combine all of these sequences of activity to indicate spots where traffic is heavy in the building, or where congestion might occur, and to determine what the severest drain on the utilities is likely to be."/>
        <outline hs:nid="020" text="All of this information (the building design and its associated &quot;thought structure&quot;) can be stored on a tape to represent the design manual for the building. Loading this tape into his own clerk, another architect, a builder, or the client can maneuver within this design manual to pursue whatever details or insights are of interest to him--and can append special notes that are integrated into the design manual for his own or someone else's later benefit."/>
        <outline hs:nid="021" text="In such a future working relationship between human problem-solver and computer 'clerk,' the capability of the computer for executing mathematical processes would be used whenever it was needed. However, the computer has many other capabilities for manipulating and displaying information that can be of significant benefit to the human in nonmathematical processes of planning, organizing, studying, etc. Every person who does his thinking with symbolized concepts (whether in the form of the English language, pictographs, formal logic, or mathematics) should be able to benefit significantly."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="022" text="B. OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY">
        <outline hs:nid="023" text="The objective of this study is to develop a conceptual framework within which could grow a coordinated research and development program whose goals would be the following: (1) to find the factors that limit the effectiveness of the individual's basic information-handling capabilities in meeting the various needs of society for problem solving in its most general sense; and (2) to develop new techniques, procedures, and systems that will better match these basic capabilities to the needs' problems, and progress of society. We have placed the following specifications on this framework:">
          <outline hs:nid="024" text="1. That it provide perspective for both long-range basic research and research that will yield practical results soon."/>
          <outline hs:nid="025" text="2. That it indicate what this augmentation will actually involve in the way of changes in working environment, in thinking, in skills, and in methods of working."/>
          <outline hs:nid="026" text="3. That it be a basis for evaluating the possible relevance of work and knowledge from existing fields and for assimilating whatever is relevant."/>
          <outline hs:nid="027" text="4. That it reveal areas where research is possible and ways to assess the research, be a basis for choosing starting points, and indicate how to develop appropriate methodologies for the needed research."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="028" text="Two points need emphasis here. First, although a conceptual framework has been constructed, it is still rudimentary. Further search, and actual research, are needed for the evolution of the framework. Second, even if our conceptual framework did provide an accurate and complete basic analysis of the system from which stems a human's intellectual effectiveness, the explicit nature of future improved systems would be highly affected by (expected) changes in our technology or in our understanding of the human being."/>
      </outline>
    </outline>
    <outline hs:nid="029" text="II. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK">
      <outline hs:nid="030" text="A. GENERAL">
        <outline hs:nid="031" text="The conceptual framework we seek must orient us toward the real possibilities and problems associated with using modern technology to give direct aid to an individual in comprehending complex situations, isolating the significant factors, and solving problems. To gain this orientation, we examine how individuals achieve their present level of effectiveness, and expect that this examination will reveal possibilities for improvement."/>
        <outline hs:nid="032" text="The entire effect of an individual on the world stems essentially from what he can transmit to the world through his limited motor channels. This in turn is based on information received from the outside world through limited sensory channels; on information, drives, and needs generated within him; and on his processing of that information. His processing is of two kinds: that which he is generally conscious of (recognizing patterns, remembering, visualizing, abstracting, deducing, inducing, etc.), and that involving the unconscious processing and mediating of received and self-generated information, and the unconscious mediating of conscious processing itself."/>
        <outline hs:nid="033" text="The individual does not use this information and this processing to grapple directly with the sort of complex situation in which we seek to give him help. He uses his innate capabilities in a rather more indirect fashion, since the situation is generally too complex to yield directly to his motor actions, and always too complex to yield comprehensions and solutions from direct sensory inspection and use of basic cognitive capabilities. For instance, an aborigine who possesses all of our basic sensory-mental-motor capabilities, but does not possess our background of indirect knowledge and procedure, cannot organize the proper direct actions necessary to drive a car through traffic, request a book from the library, call a committee meeting to discuss a tentative plan, call someone on the telephone, or compose a letter on the typewriter."/>
        <outline hs:nid="034" text="Our culture has evolved means for us to organize the little things we can do with our &lt;i&gt;basic&lt;/i&gt; capabilities so that we can derive comprehension from truly complex situations, and accomplish the processes of deriving and implementing problem solutions. The ways in which human capabilities are thus extended are here called augmentation means, and we define four basic classes of them:">
          <outline hs:nid="035" text="1. &lt;i&gt;Artifacts&lt;/i&gt;--physical objects designed to provide for human comfort, for the manipulation of things or materials, and for the manipulation of symbols."/>
          <outline hs:nid="036" text="2. &lt;i&gt;Language&lt;/i&gt;--the way in which the individual parcels out the picture of his world into the concepts that his mind uses to model that world, and the symbols that he attaches to those concepts and uses in consciously manipulating the concepts (&quot;thinking&quot;)."/>
          <outline hs:nid="037" text="3. &lt;i&gt;Methodology&lt;/i&gt;--the methods, procedures, strategies, etc., with which an individual organizes his &lt;i&gt;goal-centered&lt;/i&gt; (problem-solving) activity."/>
          <outline hs:nid="038" text="4. &lt;i&gt;Training&lt;/i&gt;--the conditioning needed by the human being to bring his skills in using Means 1, 2, and 3 to the point where they are operationally effective."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="039" text="The system we want to improve can thus be visualized as a trained human being together with his artifacts, language, and methodology. The explicit new system we contemplate will involve as artifacts computers, and computer-controlled information-storage, information-handling, and information-display devices.  The aspects of the conceptual framework that are discussed here are primarily those relating to the human being's ability to make significant use of such equipment in an integrated system."/>
        <outline hs:nid="040" text="Pervading all of the augmentation means is a particular structure or organization. While an untrained aborigine cannot drive a car through traffic, because he cannot leap the gap between his cultural background and the kind of world that contains cars and traffic, it is possible to move step by step through an organized training program that will enable him to drive effectively and safely. In other words, the human mind neither learns nor acts by large leaps, but by steps organized or structured so that each one depends upon previous steps."/>
        <outline hs:nid="041" text="Although the size of the step a human being can take in comprehension, innovation, or execution is small in comparison to the over-all size of the step needed to solve a complex problem, human beings nevertheless do solve complex problems. It is the augmentation means that serve to break down a large problem in such a way that the human being can walk through it with his little steps, and it is the structure or organization of these little steps or actions that we discuss as &lt;i&gt;process hierarchies&lt;/i&gt;."/>
        <outline hs:nid="042" text="Every process of thought or action is made up of sub-processes. Let us consider such examples as making a pencil stroke, writing a letter of the alphabet, or making a plan. Quite a few discrete muscle movements are organized into the making of a pencil stroke; similarly, making particular pencil strokes and making a plan for a letter are complex processes in themselves that become sub-processes to the over-all writing of an alphabetic character."/>
        <outline hs:nid="043" text="Although every sub-process is a process in its own right, in that it consists of further sub-processes, there seems to be no point here in looking for the ultimate bottom of the process-hierarchical structure. There seems to be no way of telling whether or not the apparent bottoms (processes that cannot be further subdivided) exist in the physical world or in the limitations of human understanding."/>
        <outline hs:nid="044" text="In any case, it is not necessary to begin from the bottom in discussing particular process hierarchies. No person uses a process that is completely unique every time he tackles something new. Instead, he begins from a group of basic sensory-mental-motor process capabilities, and adds to these certain of the process capabilities of his artifacts. There are only a finite number of such basic human and artifact capabilities from which to draw. Furthermore, even quite different higher order processes may have in common relatively high-order sub-processes&quot;."/>
        <outline hs:nid="045" text="When a man writes prose text (a reasonably high-order process), he makes use of many processes as sub-processes that are common to other high-order processes. For example, he makes use of planning, composing, dictating.  The process of writing is utilized as a sub-process within many different processes of a still higher order, such as organizing a committee, changing a policy, and so on."/>
        <outline hs:nid="046" text="What happens, then, is that each individual develops a certain repertoire of process capabilities from which he selects and adapts those that will compose the processes that he executes. This repertoire is like a tool kit, and just as the mechanic must know what his tools can do and how to use them, so the intellectual worker must know the capabilities of his tools and have good methods, strategies, and rules of thumb for making use of them. All of the process capabilities in the individual's repertoire rest ultimately upon basic capabilities within him or his artifacts, and the entire repertoire represents an inter-knit, hierarchical structure (which we often call the &lt;i&gt;repertoire hierarchy&lt;/i&gt;)."/>
        <outline hs:nid="047" text="We find three general categories of process capabilities within a typical individual's repertoire. There are those that are executed completely within the human integument, which we call explicit-human process capabilities; there are those possessed by artifacts for executing processes without human intervention, which we call &lt;i&gt;explicit-artifact&lt;/i&gt; process capabilities; and there are what we call the &lt;i&gt;composite&lt;/i&gt; process capabilities, which are derived from hierarchies containing both of the other kinds. "/>
        <outline hs:nid="048" text="We assume that it is our H-LAM/T system (Human using Lauguage, Artifacts, Methodology, in which he is Trained) that has the capability and that performs the process in any instance of use of this repertoire. Let us look within the process structure for the LAM/T ingredients, to get a better &quot;feel&quot; for our models. Consider the process of writing an important memo.There is a particular concept associated with this process -- that of putting information into a formal package and distributing it to a set of people for a certain kind of consideration -- and the type of information package associated with this concept has been given the special name of &lt;i&gt;memorandum&lt;/i&gt;.  Already the system language shows the effect of this process--i.e., a concept and its name."/>
        <outline hs:nid="049" text="The memo-writing process may be executed by using a set of process capabilities (in intermixed or repetitive form) such as the following planning, developing subject matter, composing text, producing hard copy, and distributing.  There is a definite way in which these sub-processes will be organized that represents part of the system methodology. Each of these sub-processes represents a functional concept that must be a part of the system language if it is to be organized effectively into the human's way of doing things, and the symbolic portrayal of each concept must be such that the human can work with it and remember it."/>
        <outline hs:nid="050" text="If the memo is simple, a paragraph or so in length, then the first three processes may well be of the explicit-human type (i.e., it may be planned, developed) and composed within the mind) and the last two of the composite type. If it is a complex memo, involving a good deal of careful planning and development, then all of the sub-processes might well be of the composite type (e.g., at least including the use of pencil and paper artifacts)' and there might be many different applications of some of the process capabilities within the total process (i.e., successive drafts, revised plans)."/>
        <outline hs:nid="051" text="The set of sub-process capabilities discussed so far, if called upon in proper occasion and sequence, would indeed enable the execution of the memo-writing process. However, the very process of organizing and supervising the utilization of these sub-process capabilities is itself a most important sub-process of the memo-writing process. Hence, the sub- process capabilities as listed would not be complete without the addition of a seventh capability--what we call the &lt;i&gt;executive&lt;/i&gt; capability. This is the capability stemming from habit, strategy, rules of thumb, prejudice, learned method, intuition, unconscious dictates, or combinations thereof, to call upon the appropriate sub-process capabilities with a particular sequence and timing. An executive process (i.e., the exercise of an executive capability) involves such sub-processes as planning, selecting, and supervising, and it is really the executive processes that embody all of the methodology in the H-LAM/T system."/>
        <outline hs:nid="052" text="To illustrate the capability-hierarchy features of our conceptual framework, let us consider an artifact innovation appearing directly within the relatively low-order capability for composing and modifying written text, and see how this can affect a (or, for instance, your) hierarchy of capabilities.  Suppose you had a new writing machine--think of it as a high-speed electric typewriter with some special features. You could operate its keyboard to cause it to write text much as you could use a conventional typewriter.  But the printing mechanism is more complicated; besides printing a visible character at every stroke, it adds special encoding features by means of invisible selective components in the ink and special shaping of the character."/>
        <outline hs:nid="053" text="As an auxiliary device, there is a gadget that is held like a pencil and, instead of a point, has a special sensing mechanism that you can pass over a line of the special printing from your writing machine (or one like it). The signals which this reading stylus sends through the flexible connecting wire to the writing machine are used to determine which characters are being sensed and thus to cause the automatic typing of a duplicate string of characters. An information-storage mechanism in the writing machine permits you to sweep the reading stylus over the characters much faster than the writer can type; the writer will catch up with you when you stop to think about what word or string of words should be duplicated next, or while you reposition the straightedge guide along which you run the stylus."/>
        <outline hs:nid="054" text="This writing machine would permit you to use a new process of composing text. For instance, trial drafts could rapidly be composed from re-arranged excerpts of old drafts, together with new words or passages which you stop to type in. Your first draft could represent a free outpouring of thoughts in any order, with the inspection of foregoing thoughts continuously stimulating new considerations and ideas to be entered. If the tangle of thoughts represented by the draft became too complex, you would compile a reordered draft quickly. It would be practical for you to accommodate more complexity in the trails of thought you might build in search of the path that suits your needs."/>
        <outline hs:nid="055" text="You can integrate your new ideas more easily, and thus harness your creativity more continuously, if you can quickly and flexibly change your working record. If it is easier to update any part of your working record to accommodate new developments in thought or circumstance, you will find it easier to incorporate more complex procedures in your way of doing things.  This will probably allow you to accommodate the extra burden associated with, for instance, keeping and using special files whose contents are both contributed to and utilized by any current work in a flexible manner--which in turn enables you to devise and use even-more complex procedures to better harness your talents in your particular working situation."/>
        <outline hs:nid="056" text="The important thing to appreciate here is that a direct new innovation in one particular capability can have far-reaching effects throughout the rest of your capability hierarchy. A change can propagate up through the capability hierarchy; higher-order capabilities that can utilize the initially changed capability can now reorganize to take special advantage of this change and of the intermediate higher-capability changes. A change can propagate &lt;i&gt;down&lt;/i&gt; through the hierarchy as a result of new capabilities at the high level and modification possibilities latent in lower levels.  These latent capabilities may previously have been unusable in the hierarchy and become usable because of the new capability at the higher level."/>
        <outline hs:nid="057" text="The writing machine and its flexible copying capability would occupy you for a long time if you tried to exhaust the reverberating chain of associated possibilities for making useful innovations within your capability hierarchy. This one innovation could trigger a rather extensive redesign of this hierarchy; your way of accomplishing many of your tasks would change considerably. Indeed this process characterizes the sort of evolution that our intellect-augmentation means have been undergoing since the first human brain appeared."/>
        <outline hs:nid="058" text="To our objective of deriving orientation about possibilities for actively pursuing an increase in human intellectual effectiveness, it is important to realize that we must be prepared to pursue such new- possibility chains throughout the &lt;i&gt;entire&lt;/i&gt; capability hierarchy (calling for a system approach). It is also important to realize that we must be oriented to the &lt;i&gt;synthesis&lt;/i&gt; of new capabilities from reorganization of other capabilities, both old and new, that exist throughout the hierarchy (calling for a &quot;system-engineering&quot; approach)."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="059" text="B. THE BASIC PERSPECTIVE">
        <outline hs:nid="060" text="Individuals who operate effectively in our culture have already been considerably &quot;augmented.&quot; Basic human capabilities for sensing stimuli, performing numerous mental operations, and for communicating with the outside world, are put to work in our society within a system--an H-LAM/T system--the individual augmented by the language, artifacts, and methodology in which he is trained. Furthermore, we suspect that improving the effectiveness of the individual as he operates in our society should be approached as a system-engineering problem--that is, the H-LAM/T system should be studied as an interacting whole from a synthesis-oriented approach."/>
        <outline hs:nid="061" text="This view of the system as an interacting whole is strongly bolstered by considering the repertoire hierarchy of process capabilities that is structured from the basic ingredients within the H-LAM/T system. The realization that any potential change in language, artifact, or methodology has importance only relative to its use within a process' and that a new process capability appearing anywhere within that hierarchy can make practical a new consideration of latent change possibilities in many other parts of the hierarchy--possibilities in either language, artifacts, or methodology--brings out the strong interrelationship of these three augmentation means."/>
        <outline hs:nid="062" text="Increasing the effectiveness of the individual's use of his basic capabilities is a problem in redesigning the changeable parts of a system. The system is actively engaged in the continuous processes (among others) of developing comprehension within the individual and of solving problems; both processes are subject to human motivation, purpose, and will. To redesign the system's capability for performing these processes means redesigning all or part of the repertoire hierarchy. To redesign a structure, we must learn as much as we can of what is known about the basic materials and components as they are utilized within the structure; beyond that, we must learn how to view, to measure, to analyze, and to evaluate in terms of the functional whole and its purpose. In this particular case, no existing analytic theory is by itself adequate for the purpose of analyzing and evaluating over-all system performance; pursuit of an improved system thus demands the use of &lt;i&gt;experimental&lt;/i&gt; methods."/>
        <outline hs:nid="063" text="It need not bew just the very sophisticated or formal process capabilities that are added or modified in this redesign. Essentially any of the processes utilized by a representative human today--the processes that he thinks of when he looks ahead to his day's work--are composite processes of the sort that involve external composing and manipulating of symbols (text, sketches, diagrams, lists, etc.). Many of the external composing and manipulating (modifying, rearranging) processes serve such characteristically &quot;human&quot; activities as playing with forms and relationships to ask what develops, cut- and-try multiple-pass development of an idea, or listing items to reflect on and then rearranging and extending them as thoughts develop."/>
        <outline hs:nid="064" text="Existing, or near-future, technology could certainly provide our professional problem-solvers with the artifacts they need to have for duplicating and rearranging text before their eyes, quickly and with a minimum of human effort. Even ao apparently minor an advance could yield total changes in an individual's repertoire hierarchy that would represent a great increase in over-all effectivenesa. Normally the necessary equipment would enter the market slowly; changes from the expected would be small, people would change their ways of doing things a little at a time, and only gradually would their accumulated changes create markets for more radical versions of the equipment. Such an evolutionary process has been typical of the way our repertoire hierarchies have grown and formed. "/>
        <outline hs:nid="065" text="But an active research effort, aimed at exploring and evaluating poasible integrated changes throughout the repertoire hierarchy, could greatly accelerate this evolutionary process. The reaearch effort could guide the product development of new artifacts toward taking long-range meaningful steps; simultaneously competitively minded individuals who would respond to demonstrated methods for achieving greater personal effectiveness would create a market for the more radical equipment innovations. The guided evolutionary process could be expected to be considerably more rapid than the traditional one."/>
        <outline hs:nid="066" text="The category of &quot;more radical innovations&quot; includes the digital computer as a tool for the personal use of an individual. Here there is not only promise of great flexibility in the composing and rearranging of text and diagrams before the individual's eyes but also promise of many other process capabilities that can be integrated into the H-LAM/T system's repertoire hierarchy."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="067" text="C. DETAILED DISCUSSION OF THE H-LAM/T SYSTEM">
        <outline hs:nid="068" text="1. The Source of Intelligence">
          <outline hs:nid="069" text="When one looks at a computer system   that is doing a very complex job, he sees on the surface a   machine that can execute some extremely sophisticated   processes. If he is a layman, his concept of what provides   this sophisticated capability may endow the machine with a   mysterious power to sweep information through perceptive and   intelligent synthetic thinking devices. Actually, this   sophisticated capability results from a very clever   organizational hierarchy so that pursuit of the source of   intelligence within this system would take one down through   layers of functional and physical organization that become   successively more primitive."/>
          <outline hs:nid="070" text="To be more specific, we can begin at   the top and list the major levels down through which we would   pass if we successively decomposed the functional elements of   each level in search of the &quot;source of intelligence.&quot; A   programmer could take us down through perhaps three levels   (depending upon the sophistication of the total process being   executed by the computer) perhaps depicting the organization   at each level with a flow chart. The first level down would   organize functions corresponding to statements in a   problem-oriented language (e.g., ALGOL or COBOL), to achieve   the desired over-all process. The second level down would   organize lesser functions into the processes represented by   first-level statements. The third level would perhaps show how   the basic machine commands (or rather the processes which they   represent) were organized to achieve each of the functions of   the second level."/>
          <outline hs:nid="071" text="Then a machine designer could take   over, and with a block diagram of the computer's organization   he could show us (Level 4) how the different hardware units   (e.g., random-access storage, arithmetic registers, adder,   arithmetic control) are organized to provide the capability of   executing sequences of the commands used in Level 3. The logic   designer could then give us a tour of Level 5, also using   block diagrams, to show us how such hardware elements as pulse   gates, flip-flops' and AND, OR, and NOT circuits can be   organized into networks giving the functions utilized at Level   4.  For Level 6 a circuit engineer could show us diagrams   revealing how components such as transistors, resistors,   capacitors, and diodes can be organized into modular networks   that provide the functions needed for the elements of Level   5."/>
          <outline hs:nid="072" text="Device engineers and physicists of   different kinds could take us down through more layers. But   rather soon we have crossed the boundary between what is   man-organized and what is nature-organized, and are ultimately   discussing the way in which a given physical phenomenon is   derived from the intrinsic organization of sub-atomic   particles, with our ability to explain succeeding layers   blocked by the exhaustion of our present human   comprehension."/>
          <outline hs:nid="073" text="If we then ask ourselves where that   intelligence is embodied, we are forced to concede that it is   elusively distributed throughout a hierarchy of functional   processes--a hierarchy whose foundation extends down into   natural processes below the depth of our comprehension. If   there is any one thing upon which this 'intelligence depends'   it would seem to be &lt;i&gt;organization&lt;/i&gt;.  The biologists and   physiologists use a term &quot;synergism&quot; to designate (from  &lt;i&gt;Webster's Unabridged Dictionary&lt;/i&gt;, Second Edition) the   &quot;...cooperative action of discrete agencies such that the   total effect is greater than the sum of the two effects taken   independently...&quot; This term seems directly applicable here,   where we could say that synergism is our most likely candidate   for representing the actual source of intelligence"/>
          <outline hs:nid="074" text="Actually, each of the social, life, or   physical phenomena we observe about us would seem to derive   from a supporting hierarchy of organized functions (or   processes), in which the synergistic principle gives increased   phenomenological sophistication to each succeedingly higher   level of organization.  In particular, the intelligence of a   human being, derived ultimately from the characteristics of   individual nerve cells, undoubtedly results from   synergism."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="075" text="2. Intelligence Amplification">
          <outline hs:nid="076" text="It has been jokingly suggested several   times during the course of this study that what we are seeking   is an &quot;intelligence amplifier.&quot; (The term is attributed   originally to W. Ross Ashby (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-2&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-3&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt;).  At first this term was rejected   on the grounds that in our view one's only hope was to make a   better match between existing human intelligence and the   problems to be tackled, rather than in making man more   intelligent.  But deriving the concepts brought out in the   preceding section has shown us that indeed this term does seem   applicable to our objective."/>
          <outline hs:nid="077" text="Accepting the term &quot;intelligence   amplification&quot; does not imply any attempt to increase native   human intelligence. The term &quot;intelligence amplification&quot;   seems applicable to our goal of augmenting the human intellect   in that the entity to be produced will exhibit more of what   can be called intelligence than an unaided human could; we   will have amplified the intelligence of the human by   organizing his intellectual capabilities into higher levels of   synergistic structuring. What possesses the amplified   intelligence is the resulting H-LAM/T system, in which the   LAM/T augmentation means represent the amplifier of the   human's intelligence."/>
          <outline hs:nid="078" text="In amplifying our intelligence, we are   applying the principle of synergistic structuring that was   followed by natural evolution in developing the basic human   capabilities. What we have done in the development of our   augmentation means is to construct a superstructure that is a   synthetic extension of the natural structure upon which it is   built. In a very real sense, as represented by the steady   evolution of our augmentation means, the development of   &quot;artificial intelligence&quot; has been going on for centuries."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="079" text="3. Two-Domain System">
          <outline hs:nid="080" text="The human and the artifacts are the   only physical components in the H-LAM/T system. It is upon   their capabilities that the ultimate capability of the system   will depend. This was implied in the earlier statement that   every composite process of the system decomposes ultimately   into explicit-human and explicit-artifact processes. There are   thus two separate domains of activity within the H-LAM/T   system: that represented by the human, in which all   explicit-human processes occur; and that represented by the   artifacts, in which all explicit-artifact processes occur. In   any composite process, there is cooperative interaction   between the two domains, requiring interchange of energy (much   of it for information exchange purposes only). Figure 1   depicts this two domain concept and embodies other concepts   discussed below.">
            <outline hs:nid="081" text="&lt;img src=&quot;figures/augmentinghumanintellect/fig1.gif&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The Two Sides of the H-LAM/T System"/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="082" text="Where a complex machine represents the   principal artifact with which a human being cooperates, the   term &quot;man-machine interface&quot; has been used for some years to   represent the boundary across which energy is exchanged   between the two domains. However, the &quot;man-artifact interface&quot;   has existed for centuries, ever since humans began using   artifacts and executing composite processes."/>
          <outline hs:nid="083" text="Exchange across this &quot;interface&quot;   occurs when an explicit-human process is coupled to an   explicit-artifact process. Quite often these coupled processes   are designed for just this exchange purpose, to provide a   functional match between other explicit-human and   explicit-artifact processes buried within their respective   domains that do the more significant things. For instance, the   finger and hand motions (explicit human processes) activate   key-linkage motions in the typewriter (couple to   explicit-artifact processes).  But these are only part of the   matching processes between the deeper human processes that   direct a given word to be typed and the deeper artifact   processes that actually imprint the ink marks on the   paper."/>
          <outline hs:nid="084" text="The outside world interacts with our   H-LAM/T system by the exchange of energy with either the individual or his artifact. Again, special processes are often designed to accommodate this exchange. However, the direct concern of our present study lies within the system, with the internal processes that are and can be significantly involved in the effectiveness of the &lt;i&gt;system&lt;/i&gt; in developing the human's comprehension and pursuing the human's goals."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="085" text="4. Concepts, Symbols, and a   Hypothesis">
          <outline hs:nid="086" text="Before we pursue further direct   discussion of the H-LAM/T system, let us examine some   background material. Consider the following historical   progression in the development of our intellectual   capabilities:"/>
          <outline hs:nid="" text="">
            <outline hs:nid="087" text="(1) &lt;i&gt;Concept Manipulation&lt;/i&gt;--Humans rose above the lower forms of life by evolving the biological capability for developing abstractions and concepts.  They could manipulate these concepts within their minds to a certain extent, and think about situations in the abstract. Their mental capabilities allowed them to develop general concepts from specific instances, predict specific instances from general concepts, associate concepts, remember them, etc.  We speak here of concepts in their raw, unverbalized form. For example, a person letting a door swing shut behind him suddenly visualizes the person who follows him carrying a cup of hot coffee and some sticky pastries.  Of all the aspects of the pending event, the spilling of the coffee and the squashing of the pastry somehow are abstracted immediately, and associated with a concept of personal responsibility and a dislike for these consequences.  But a solution comes to mind immediately as an image of a quick stop and an arm stab back toward the door, with motion and timing that could prevent the collision, and the solution is accepted and enacted. With only non-symbolic concept manipulation, we could probably build primitive shelter, evolve strategies of war and hunt, play games, and make practical jokes. But further powers of intellectual effectiveness are implicit in this stage of biological evolution (the same stage we are in today)."/>
            <outline hs:nid="088" text="(2) &lt;i&gt;Symbol Manipulation&lt;/i&gt;--Humans made another great step forward when they learned to represent particular concepts in their minds with specific symbols. Here we temporarily disregard communicative speech and writing, and consider only the direct value to the &lt;i&gt;individual&lt;/i&gt; of being able to do his heavy thinking by mentally manipulating symbols instead of the more unwieldly concepts which they represent. Consider, for instance, the mental difficulty involved in herding twenty- seven sheep if, instead of remembering one cardinal number and occasionally counting, we had to remember what each sheep looked like, so that if the flock seemed too small we could visualize each one and check whether or not it was there."/>
            <outline hs:nid="089" text="(3) &lt;i&gt;Manual, External, Symbol Manipulation&lt;/i&gt;--Another significant step toward harnessing the biologically evolved mental capabilities in pursuit of comprehension and problem solutions came with the development of the means for externalizing some of the symbol-manipulation activity, particularly in graphical representation. This supplemented the individual's memory and ability to visualize. (We are not concerned here with the value derived from human cooperation made possible by speech and writing, both forms of external symbol manipulation. We speak of the manual means of making graphical representations of symbols--a stick and sand, pencil and paper and eraser, straight edge or compass, and so on.) It is principally this kind of means for external symbol manipulation that has been associated with the evolution of the individual's present way of doing his concept manipulation (thinking)."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="090" text="It is undoubtedly true that concepts which people found useful ended up being symbolized in their   language, and hence that the evolution of language was   affected by the concepts the people developed and   used. However, Korzybski &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-4&quot;&gt;(4)&lt;/a&gt; and  Whorf &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-5&quot;&gt;(5)&lt;/a&gt; (among others) have   argued that the language we use affects our thinking to a   considerable extent. They say that a lack of words for some   types of concepts makes it hard to express those concepts, and   thus decreases the likelihood that we will learn much about   them. If this is so, then once a language has begun to grow   and be used, it would seem reasonable to suspect that the   language also affects the evolution of the new concepts to be   expressed in that language."/>
          <outline hs:nid="091" text="Apparently there are counter-arguments   to this; e.g., if a concept needs to be used often but its   expression is difficult, then the language will evolve to ease   the situation. However, the studies of the past decade into   what are called &quot;self-organizing&quot; systems seem to be revealing   that subtle relationships among its interacting elements can   significantly influence the course of evolution of such a   system. If this is true, and if language is (as it seems to   be) a part of a selforganizing system, then it seems probable   that the state of a language at a given time strongly affects   its own evolution to a succeeding state."/>
          <outline hs:nid="092" text="For our conceptual framework, we tend   to favor the view that a language does exert a force in its   own evolution. We observe that the shift over the last few   centuries in matters that are of daily concern to the   individual has necessarily been forced into the framework of   the language existing at the time, with alterations generally   limited to new uses for old words, or the coining of new   words. The English language since Shakespeare has undergone no   alteration comparable to the alteration in the cultural   environment; if it had, Shakespeare would no longer be   accessible to us. Under such evolutionary conditions, it would   seem unlikely that the language we now use provides the best   possible service to our minds in pursuing comprehension and   solving problems. It seems very likely that a more useful   language form can be devised."/>
          <outline hs:nid="093" text="The Whorfian hypothesis states that   the world view of a culture is limited by the structure of the   language which that culture uses. But there seems to be   another factor to consider in the evolution of language and   human reasoning ability. We offer the following hypothesis,   which is related to the Whorfian hypothesis: Both the language   used by a culture, and the capability for effective   intellectual activity are directly affected during their   evolution by the means by which individuals control the   external manipulation of symbols. (For identification, we will   refer to this as the Neo-Whorfian hypothesis.) "/>
          <outline hs:nid="094" text="If the Neo-Whorfian hypothesis could   be proved readily, and if we could see how our means of   externally manipulating symbols influence both our language   and our way of thinking, then we would have a valuable   instrument for studying human-augmentation possibilities. For   the sake of discussion, let us assume the Neo-Whorfian   hypothesis to be true, and see what relevant deductions can be   made."/>
          <outline hs:nid="095" text="If the means evolved for an   individual's external manipulation of his thinking-aid symbols   indeed directly affect the way in which he thinks, then the   original Whorfian hypothesis would offer an added effect. The   direct effect of the external-symbol-manipulation means upon   language would produce an indirect effect upon the way of   thinking via the Whorfian-hypothesis linkage. There would then   be two ways for the manner in which our external symbol   manipulation was done to affect our thinking."/>
          <outline hs:nid="096" text="One way of viewing the H-LAM/T system   changes that we contemplate--specifically, integrating the   capabilities of a digital computer into the intellectual   activity of individual humans--is that we are introducing new   and extremely advanced means for externally manipulating   symbols. We then want to determine the useful modifications in   the language and in the way of thinking that could   result. This suggests a fourth stage to the evolution of our   individual-human intellectual capability: "/>
          <outline hs:nid="" text="">
            <outline hs:nid="097" text="(4) &lt;i&gt;Automated external symbol manipulation&lt;/i&gt;--In this stage, symbols with which the     human represents the concepts he is manipulating can be     arranged before his eyes, moved, stored, recalled, operated     upon according to extremely complex rules--all in very rapid     response to a minimum amount of information supplied by the     human, by means of special cooperative technological     devices. In the limit of what we might now imagine, this     could be a computer, with which we could communicate rapidly     and easily, coupled to a three-dimensional color display     within which it could construct extremely sophisticated     images--with the computer being able to execute a wide     variety of processes upon parts or all of these images in     automatic response to human direction. The displays and     processes could provide helpful services--we could imagine     both simple and exotic varieties--and could involve concepts     that we have never yet imagined (as the pregraphic thinker     of Stage 2 would be unable to predict the bar graph, the     process of long division, or a card file system)."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="098" text="These hypotheses imply great richness   in the new evolutionary spaces opened by progressing from   Stage 3 to Stage 4. We would like to study the hypotheses   further, examining their possible manifestations in our   experience, ways of demonstrating their validity, and possible   deductions relative to going to Stage 4."/>
          <outline hs:nid="099" text="In search of some simple ways to   determine what the Neo-Whorfian hypothesis might imply, we   could imagine some relatively straightforward means of   increasing our external symbol-manipulation capability and try   to picture the consequent changes that could evolve in our   language and methods of thinking. Actually, it turned out to   be simpler to invert the problem and consider a change that   would reduce our capability for external symbol   manipulation. This allowed an empirical approach which proved   both simple and effective. We thus performed the following   experiment."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0100" text="Brains of power equal to ours could   have evolved in an environment where the combination of   artifact materials and muscle strengths were so scaled that   the neatest scribing tool (equivalent to a pencil, possible   had a shape and mass as manageable as a brick would be to   us-assuming that our muscles were not specially conditioned to   deal with it. We fastened a pencil to a brick and   experimented. Figure 2 shows the results, compared with   typewriting and ordinary pencil writing. With the brick   pencil, we are slower and less precise. If we want to hurry   the writing, we have to make it larger. Also, writing the   passage twice with the brick-pencil tires the untrained hand   and arm."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0101" text="How would our civilization have   matured if this had been the only manual means for us to use   in graphical manipulation of symbols? For one thing, the   record keeping that enables the organization of commerce and   government would probably have taken a form so different from   what we know that our social structure would undoubtedly have   evolved differently. Also, the effort in doing calculations   and writing down extensive and carefully reasoned argument   would dampen individualexperimentation with sophisticated new   concepts, to lower the rate of learning and the rate of useful   output, and perhaps to discourage a good many people from even   working at extending understanding. The concepts that would   evolve within our culture would thus be different, and very   likely the symbology to represent them would be   different--much more economical of motion in their writing It   thus seems very likely that our thoughts and our language   would be rather directly affected by the particular means used   by our culture for externally manipulating symbols, which   gives little intuitive substantiation to our Neo-Whorfian   hypothesis.">
            <outline hs:nid="0102" text="&lt;img src=&quot;figures/augmentinghumanintellect/fig2.gif&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Experimental Results of Tying a Brick to a Pencil to       &quot;De-Augment&quot; the Individual"/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0103" text="To reflect further upon the   implications of this hypothesis, the following hypothetical   artifact development can be considered, representing a   diiferent type of external symbol manipulation that could have   had considerable effect.  Suppose that our young technology of   a few generations ago had developed an artifact that was   essentially a high speed, semi-automatic table-lookup   device--cheap enough for almost everyone to afford and small   and light enough to be carried on the person. Assume that the   individual cartridges sold by manufacturers (publishers)   contained the look-up information, that one cartridge could   hold the equivalent of an unabridged dictionary, and that a   one-paragraph definition could always be located and displayed   on the face of the device by the average practised individual   in less than three seconds. The fortunes of technological   invention, commercial interest, and public acceptance just   might have evolved something like this."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0104" text="If it were so very easy to look   things up, how would our vocabulary develop, how would our   habits of exploring the intellectual domains of others shift,   how might the sophistication of practical organization mature   (if each person can so quickly and easily look up applicable   rules), how would our education system change to take   advantage of this new external symbol-manipulation capability   of students and teachers (and administrators)?"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0105" text="The significance to our study of the   discussion in this section lies in the perspective it gives to   the ways in which human intellectual effectiveness can be   affected by the particular means used by individuals for their   external symbol manipulation. It seems reasonable to consider   the development of automated external symbol manipulation   means as a next stage in the evolution of our intellectual   power."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0106" text="5. Capability Repertoire Hierarchy">
          <outline hs:nid="0107" text="The concept of our H-LAM/T system   possessing a repertoire of capabilities that is structured in   the form of a hierarchy is most useful in our study.  We shall   use it in the following to tie together a number of   considerations and concepts. There are two points of focus in   considering the design of new repertoire hierarchies: the   materials with which we have to work, and the principles by   which new capability is constructed from these basic   materials."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0108" text="a. Basic Capabilities">
            <outline hs:nid="0109" text="&lt;i&gt;&quot;Materials&quot;&lt;/i&gt; in this context     are those capabilities in the human and in the artifact     domains from which all other capabilities in the repertoire     hierarchy must be constructed. Each such basic capability     represents a type of functional component with which the     system can be built, and a thorough job of redesigning the     system calls for making an inventory of the basic     capabilities available. Because we are exploring for     perspective, and not yet recommending research activities,     we are free to discuss and define in more detail what we     mean by &quot;basic capability&quot;, without regard to the amount of     research involved in making an actual inventory."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0110" text="The two domains, human and     artifact, can be explored separately for their basic     capabilities, In each we can isolate two classes of basic     capability; these classes are distinguished according to     whether or not the capability has been put to use within out     augmentation means. The first class (those in use) can be     found in a methodical manner by analyzing present capability     hierarchies. For example, select a given capability, at any     level in the hierarchy, and ask yourself if it can be     usefully changed by any means that can be given     consideration in the augmentation research contemplated, If     it can, then it is not basic but it can be decomposed into     an eventual set of basic capabilities. As you proceed down     through the hierarchy, you will begin to encounter     capabilities that cannot be usefully changed, and these will     make up your inventory of basic capabilities. Ultimately,     every such recursive decomposition of a given capability in     the hierarchy will find every one of its branching paths     terminated by basic capabilities.  Beginning such     decomposition search with different capabilities in the     hierarchy will eventually uncover all of those basic     capabilities used within that hierarchy or augmentation     system. Many of the branching paths in the decomposition of     a given higher-order capability will terminate in the same     basic capability, since a given basic capability will often     be used within many different higher-order capabilities."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0111" text="Determining the class of basic     capabilities not already utilized within existing     augmentation systems requires a different exploration     method.  Examples of this method occur in technological     research, where analytically oriented researchers search for     new understandings of phenomena that can add to the research     engineer's list of things to be used in the synthesis of     better artifacts."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0112" text="Before this inventorying task can     be pursued in any specific instance, some criteria must be     established as to what possible changes within the H-LAM/T     system can be given serious consideration. For instance,     some research situations might have to disallow changes     which require extensive retraining, or which require     undignified behavior by the human. Other situations might     admit changes requiring years of special training, very     expensive equipment, or the use of special drugs."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0113" text="The capability for performing a     certain finger action, for example, may not be basic in our     sense of the word. Being able to extend the finger a certain     distance would be basic but the strength and speed of a     particular finger motion and its coordination with higher     actions generally are usefully changeable and therefore do     not represent basic capabilities. What would be basic in     this case would perhaps be the processes whereby strength     could be increased and coordinated movement patterns     learned, as well as the basic movement range established by     the mechanical-limit loci of the muscle-tendon-bone     system. Similar capability breakdowns will occur for sensory     and cognitive capabilities."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0114" text="b. Structure Types">
            <outline hs:nid="0115" text="1) General">
              <outline hs:nid="0116" text="The fundamental principle used       in building sophisticated capabilities from the basic       capabilities is structuring--the special type of       structuring (which we have termed synergetic) in which the       organization of a group of elements produces an effect       greater than the mere addition of their individual       effects. Perhaps &quot;purposeful&quot; structuring (or       organization) would serve us as well, but since we aren't       sure yet how the structuring concept must mature for our       needs, we shall tentatively stick with the special       modifier, &quot;synergetic.&quot; We are developing a growing       awareness of the significant and pervasive nature of such       structure within every physical and conceptual thing we       inspect, where the hierarchical form seems almost       universally present as stemming from successive levels of       such organization."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0117" text="The fundamental entities that       are being structured in each and every case seems to be       what we could call processes, where the most basic of       physical processes (involving fields, charges, and momenta       associated with the dynamics of fundamental particles)       appear to be the hierarchical base.  There are dynamic       electro-optical-mechanical processes associated with the       function of our artifacts (as well as metabolic, sensory,       motor) and cognitive processes of the human, which we find       to be relatively fundamental components within the       structure of our H-LAM/T system--and each of these seems       truly to be ultimately based (to our degree of       understanding) upon the above mentioned basic physical       processes. The elements that are organized to give fixed       structural form to our physical objects--e.g., the       &quot;element&quot; of tensile strength of a material-are also       derived from what we could call synergetic structuring of       the most basic physical processes."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0118" text="But at the level of the       capability hierarchy where we wish to work, it seems       useful to us to distinguish several different types of       structuring--even though each type is fundamentally a       structuring of the basic physical processes.  Tentatively       we have isolated five such types--although we are not sure       how many we shall ultimately want to use in considering       the problem of augmenting the human intellect, nor how we       might divide and subdivide these different manifestations       of physical-process structuring. We use the terms &quot;mental       structuring&quot;, &quot;concept structuring&quot;, &quot;symbol structuring&quot;,       &quot;process structuring,&quot; and &quot;physical structuring.&quot;"/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0119" text="2) Mental Structuring">
              <outline hs:nid="0120" text="&lt;i&gt;Mental structuring&lt;/i&gt; is       what we call the internal organization of conscious and       unconscious mental images, associations, or concepts (or       whatever it is that is organized within the human mind)       that somehow manages to provide the human with       understanding and the basis for such as judgment,       intuition, inference, and meaningful action with respect       to his environment.  There is a term used in psychology,       cognitive structure, which so far seems to represent just       what we want for our concept of mental structure, but we       will not adopt it until we become more sure of what the       accepted psychological meaning is and of what we want for       our conceptual framework."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0121" text="For our present purpose, it is       irrelevant to worry over what the fundamental mental       &quot;things&quot; being structured are, or what mechanisms are       accomplishing the structuring or making use of what has       been structured.  We feel reasonably safe in assuming that       learning involves some kind of meaningful organization       within the brain, and that whatever is so organized or       structured represents the operating model of the       individual's universe to the mental mechanisms that derive       his behavior. And further, our assumption is that when the       human in our H/LAM system makes the key decision or action       that leads to the solution of a complex problem, it will       stem from the state of his mental structure at that       time. In this view then, the basic purpose of the system's       activity on that problem up to that point has been to       develop his mental structure to the state from which the       mental mechanisms could derive the key action."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0122" text="Our school systems attest that       there are specific experiences that can be given to a       human that will result in development of his mental       structure to the point where the behavior derived there       from by his mental mechanisms shows us that he has gained       new comprehension--in other words, we can do a certain       amount from outside the human toward developing his mental       structure.  Independent students and researchers also       attest that internally directed behavior on the part of an       individual can directly aid his structure-building       process."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0123" text="We don't know whether a mental       structure is developed in a manner analogous to (a)       development of a garden, where one provides a good       environment, plants the seeds, keeps competing weeds and       injurious pests out, but otherwise has to let natural       processes take their course, or to (b) development of a       basketball team, where much exercise of skills, patterns,       and strategies must be provided so that natural processes       can slowly knit together an integration, or to (c)       development of a machine, where carefully formed elements       are assembled in a precise, planned manner so that natural       phenomena can immediately yield planned function. We don't       know the processes, but we can and have developed       empirical relationships between the experiences given a       human and the associated manifestations of developing       comprehension and capability, and we see the near-future       course of the research toward augmenting the human's       intellect as depending entirely upon empirical findings       (past and future) for the development of better means to       serve the development and use of mental structuring in the       human."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0124" text="We don't mean to imply by this       that we renounce theories of mental processes.  What we       mean to emphasize is that pursuit of our objective need       not wait upon the understanding of the mental processes       that accomplish (what we call) mental structuring and that       derive behavior therefrom. It would be to ignore the       emphases of our own conceptual framework not to make       fullest use of any theory that provided a working       explanation for a group of empirical data. What's more,       our entire conceptual framework represents the first pass       at a &quot;theoretical model with which to organize our       thinking and action.&quot;"/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0125" text="3) Concept Structuring">
              <outline hs:nid="0126" text="Within our framework we have       developed the working assumption that the manner in which       we seem to be able to provide experiences that favor the       development of our mental structures is based upon       concepts as a &quot;medium of exchange.&quot; We view a concept as a       tool that can be grasped and used by the mental       mechanisms, that can be composed, interpreted, and used by       the natural mental substances and processes. The grasping       and handling done by these mechanisms can often be       facilitated if the concept is given an explicit &quot;handle&quot;       in the form of a representative symbol.  Somehow the       mental mechanisms can learn to manipulate images (or       something) of symbols in a meaningful way and remain       calmly confident that the associated conceptual       manipulations are within call."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0127" text="Concepts seem to be       structurable, in that a new concept can be composed of an       organization of established concepts. For present       purposes, we can view a &lt;i&gt;concept structure&lt;/i&gt; as       something which we might try to develop on paper for       ourselves or work with by conscious thought processes, or       as something which we try to communicate to one another in       serious discussion.  We assume that, for a given unit of       comprehension to be imparted, there is a concept structure       (which can be consciously developed and displayed) that       can be presented to an individual in such a way that it is       mapped into a corresponding mental structure which       provides the basis for that individual's &quot;comprehending&quot;       behavior. Our working assumption also considers that some       concept structures would be better for this purpose than       others, in that they would be more easily mapped by the       individual into workable mental structures, or in that the       resulting mental structures enable a higher degree of       comprehension and better solutions to problems, or       both."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0128" text="A concept structure often grows       as part of a cultural evolution--either on a large scale       within a large segment of society, or on a small scale       within the activity domain of an individual. But it is       also something that can be directly designed or modified,       and a basic hypothesis of our study is that better concept       structures can be developed-- structures that when mapped       into a human's mental structure will significantly improve       his capability to comprehend and to find solutions within       his complex-problem situations."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0129" text="A natural language provides its       user with a readymade structure of concepts that       establishes a basic mental structure, and that allows       relatively flexible, general-purpose concept       structuring. Our concept of language as one of the basic       means for augmenting the human intellect embraces all of       the concept structuring which the human may make use       of."/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0130" text="4) Symbol Structuring">
              <outline hs:nid="0131" text="The other important part of our       &quot;language&quot; is the way in which concepts are       represented--the symbols and &lt;i&gt;symbol structures&lt;/i&gt;. Words structured into phrases, sentences,       paragraphs, monographs--charts, lists, diagrams, tables,       etc. A given structure of concepts can be represented by       any of an infinite number of different symbol structures,       some of which would be much better than others for       enabling the human perceptual and cognitive apparatus to       search out and comprehend the conceptual matter of       significance and/or interest to the human. For instance, a       concept structure involving many numerical data would       generally be much better represented with Arabic rather       than Roman numerals and quite likely a graphic structure       would be better than a tabular structure."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0132" text="But it is not only the &lt;i&gt;form&lt;/i&gt; of a symbol structure that is important.  A problem       solver is involved in a stream of conceptual activity       whose course serves his mental needs of the moment. The       sequence and nature of these needs are quite variable, and       yet for each need he may benefit significantly from a form       of symbol structuring that is uniquely efficient for that       need."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0133" text="Therefore, besides the forms of       symbol structures that can be constructed and portrayed,       we are very much concerned with the speed and flexibility       with which one form can be transfcrmed into another, and       with which new material can be located and portrayed."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0134" text="We are generally used to       thinking of our symbol structures as a pattern of marks on       a sheet of paper. When we want a different       symbol-structure view, we think of shifting our point of       attention on the sheet, or moving a new sheet into       position. But another kind of view might be obtained by       extracting and ordering all statements in the local text       that bear upon consideration A of the argument--or by       replacing all occurrences of specified esoteric words by       one's own definitions. This sort of &quot;view generation&quot;       becomes quite feasible with a computer-controlled display       system, and represents a very significant capability to       build upon."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0135" text="With a computer manipulating       our symbols and generating their portrayals to us on a       display, we no longer need think of our looking at &lt;i&gt;the&lt;/i&gt; symbol structure which is stored--as we think of looking at &lt;i&gt;the&lt;/i&gt; symbol structures stored in       notebooks, memos, and books. What the computer actually       stores need be none of our concern, assuming that it can       portray symbol structures to us that are consistent with       the form in which we think our information is       structured."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0136" text="A given concept structure can       be represented with a symbol structure that is completely       compatible with the computer's internal way of handling       symbols, with all sorts of characteristics and       relationships given explicit identifications that the user       may never directly see. In fact, this structuring has       immensely greater potential for accurately mapping a       complex concept structure than does a structure an       individual would find it practical to construct or use on       paper."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0137" text="The computer can transform back       and forth between the two-dimensional portrayal on the       screen, of some limited view of the total structure, and       the aspect of the n-dimensional internal image that       represents this &quot;view&quot;.  If the human adds to or modifies       such a &quot;view,&quot; the computer integrates the change into the       internal-image symbol structure (in terms of the       computer's favored symbols and structuring) and thereby       automatically detects a certain proportion of his possible       conceptual inconsistencies."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0138" text="Thus, inside this instrument       (the computer) there is an internal-image, computer-symbol       structure whose convolutions and multi-dimensionality we       can learn to shape to represent to hitherto unattainable       accuracy the concept structure we might be building or       working with. This interna1 structure may have a form that       is nearly incomprehensible to the direct inspection of a       human (except in minute chunks)."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0139" text="But let the human specify to       the instrument his particular conceptual need of the       moment, relative to this internal image. Without       disrupting its own internal reference structure in the       slightest, the computer will effectively stretch, bend,       fold, extract, and cut as it may need in order to assemble       an internal substructure that is its respons, structured       in its own internal way. With the set of standard       translation rules appropriate to the situation, it       portrays to the human via its display a symbol structure       designed for &lt;i&gt;his&lt;/i&gt; quick and accurate perception and       comprehension of the conceptual matter pertinent to this       internally composed substructure."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0140" text="No longer does the human work       on stiff and limited symbol structures, where much of the       conceptual content can only be implicitly designated in an       indirect and distributed fashion. These new ways of       working are basically available with today's       technology--we have but to free ourselves from some of our       limiting views and begin experimenting with compatible       sets of structure forms and processes for human concepts,       human symbols, and machine symbols."/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0141" text="5) Process Structuring">
              <outline hs:nid="0142" text="Essentially everything that       goes on within the H-LAM/T system and that is of direct       interest here involves the manipulation of concept and       symbol structures in service to the mental       structure. Therefore, the processes within the H-LAM/T       system that we are most interested in developing are those       that provide for the manipulation of all three types of       structure.  This brings us to the fourth category of       structuring, &lt;i&gt;process&lt;/i&gt; structuring."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0143" text="As we are currently using it,       the term includes the organization, study, modification,       and execution of processes and process structures. Whereas       concept structuring and symbol structuring together       represent the language component of our augmentation       means, process structuring represents the methodology       component (plus a little more, actually).  There has been       enough previous discussion of process structures that we       need not describe the notion here, beyond perhaps an       example or two. The individual processes (or actions) of       my hands and fingers have to be cooperatively organized if       the typewriter is to do my bidding. My successive actions       throughout my working day are meant to cooperate toward a       certain over-all professional goal."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0144" text="Many of the process structures       are applied to the task of organizing, executing,       supervising, and evaluating other process structures. Many       of them are applied to the formation and manipulation of       symbol structures (the purpose of which will often be to       support the conceptual labor involved in process       structuring)."/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0145" text="6) Physical Structuring">
              <outline hs:nid="0146" text="&lt;i&gt;Physical structuring&lt;/i&gt;, the last of the five types which we currently use in our       conceptual framework, is nearly self-explanatory. It       pretty well represents the artifact component of our       augmentation means, insofar as their actual physical       construction is concerned."/>
            </outline>
            <outline hs:nid="0147" text="7) Interdependence and       Regeneration">
              <outline hs:nid="0148" text="A very important feature to be       noted from the discussion in this section bears upon the       interdependence among the various types of structuring       which are involved in the H-LAM/T system, where the       capability for doing each type of structuring is dependent       upon the capability for doing one or more of the other       types of structuring. (Assuming that the physical       structuring of the system remains basically unchanged       during the system's operation, we exclude its dependence       upon other factors in this discussion.)"/>
              <outline hs:nid="0149" text="This interdependence actually       has a cyclic, regenerative nature to it which is very       significant to us. We have seen how the capability for       mental structuring is finally dependent, down the chain,       upon the process structuring (human, artifact, composite)       that enables symbol-structure manipulation.  But it also       is evident that the process structuring is dependent not       only upon basic human and artifact process capabilities,       but upon the ability of the human to learn how to execute       processes--and no less important, upon the ability of the       human to select, organize, and modify processes from his       repertoire to structure a higher-order process that he can       execute.  Thus, a capability for structuring and executing       processes is partially dependent upon the human's mental       structuring, which in turn is partially dependent upon his       process structuring (through concept and symbol       structuring), which is partially dependent upon his mental       structuring, etc."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0150" text="All of this means that a       significant improvement in symbol-structure manipulation       through better process structuring (initially perhaps       through much better artifacts) should enable us to develop       improvements in concept and mental-structure manipulations       that can in turn enable us to organize and execute       symbol-manipulation processes of increased power. To most       people who initially consider the possibilities for       computer-like devices augmenting the human intellect, it       is only the one-pass improvement that comes to mind, which       presents a picture that is relatively barren compared to       that which emerges when one considers this regenerative       interaction."/>
              <outline hs:nid="0151" text="We can confidently expect the       development of much more powerful concepts pertaining to       the manner in which symbol structures can be manipulated       and portrayed, and correspondingly more complex       manipulation processes that in the first pass would have       been beyond the human's power to organize and execute       without the better symbol, concept, and mental structuring       which his augmented system provided him. These new       concepts and processes, beyond our present capabilities to       use and thus never developed, will provide a tremendous       increased-capability payoff in the future development of       our augmentation means."/>
            </outline>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0152" text="c. Roles and Levels">
            <outline hs:nid="0153" text="In the repertoire hierarchy of     capabilities possessed by the H-LAM/T system, the human     contributes many types of capability that represent a wide     variety of roles. At one time or another he will be the     policy maker, the goal setter, the performance supervisor,     the work scheduler, the professional specialist, the clerk,     the janitor, the entrepreneur, and the proprietor (or at     least a major stockholder) of the system. In the midst of     some complex process, in fact, he may well be playing     several roles concurrently--or at least have the     responsibility of the roles. For instance, usually he must     be aware of his progress toward a goal (supervisor), he must     be alert to the possibilities for changing the goal (policy     maker, planner), and he must keep records for these and     other roles (clerk)."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0154" text="Consider a given capability (Capability 1) at some level in the repertoire hierarchy. There seems to be a sort of standard grouping of     lower-order capabilities from which this is composed, and     these exist in two classes--what we might call the &lt;i&gt;executive&lt;/i&gt; class and what we might call the &lt;i&gt;direct-contributive&lt;/i&gt; class. In the executive class of     capabilities we find those used for comprehending, planning,     and executing the process represented by Capability 1. In     the direct-contributive class we find the capabilities     organized by the executive class toward the direct     realization of Capability 1. For example, when my telephone     rings, I execute the direct-contributive processes of     picking up the receiver and saying hello. It was the     executive processes that comprehended the situation,     directed a lower-order executive-process that the receiver     be picked up and, when the receiver was in place (first     process accomplished), directed the next process, the saying     hello. That represents the composition of my capability for     answering the phone."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0155" text="For a low-level capability, such     as that of writing a word with a pencil, both the executive     and the direct-contributive subprocesses during actual     execution would be automatic. This type of automatic     capability need only be summoned by a higher executive     process in order for trained automatic responses to execute     it."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0156" text="At a little higher level of     capability, more of the conscious conceptual and executive     capabilities become involved. To call someone on the     telephone, I must consciously comprehend the need for this     process and how I can execute it, I must consciously pick up     the directory and search for the name and telephone number,     and I must consciously direct the dialing of the number."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0157" text="At a still higher level of     capability, the executive capabilities must have a degree of     power that unaided mental capabilities cannot provide.  In     such a case, one might make a list of steps and check each     item off as it is executed. For an even more complex     process, comprehending the particular situation in which it     is to be executed, even before beginning to plan the     execution, may take months of labor and a very complex     organization of the system's capabilities."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0158" text="Imagining a process as complex as     the last example brings us to the realization that at any     particular moment the H-LAM/T system may be in the middle of     executing a great number of processes. Assume that the human     is in the middle of the process of making a telephone     call. That telephone call is a subprocess in the middle of     the process of calling a committee meeting. But calling a     committee meeting is a subprocess in the middle of the     process of determining a budgetary policy, which is in turn     but a subprocess in the middle of the process of estimating     manpower needs, and so on."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0159" text="Not only does the human need to     play various roles (sometimes concurrently) in the execution     of any given process, but he is playing these roles for the     many concurrent processes that are being executed at     different levels.  This situation is typical for any of us     engaged in reasonably demanding types of professional     pursuits, and yet we have never received explicit training     in optimum ways of carrying out any but a very few of the     roles at a very few of the levels. A well-designed H-LAM/T     system would provide explicit and effective concepts, terms,     equipment, and methods for all these roles, and for their     dynamic coordination."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0160" text="d. Model of Executive     Superstructure">
            <outline hs:nid="0161" text="It is the repertoire hierarchy of     process capabilities upon which the ultimate capability of     the H-LAM/T system rests. This repertoire hierarchy is     rather like a mountain of white-collar talent that sits atop     and controls the talents of the workers. We can illustrate     this executive superstructure by considering it as though it     were a network of contractors and subcontractors in which     each capability in the repertoire hierarchy is represented     by an independent contractor whose mode of operation is to     do the planning, make up specifications, subcontract the     actual work, and supervise the performance of his     subcontractors. This means that each subcontractor does the     same thing in his turn. At the bottom of this hierarchy are     those independent contractors who do actual &quot;production     work.&quot;"/>
            <outline hs:nid="0162" text="If by some magical process the     production workers could still know just what to do and when     to do it even though the superstructure of contractors was     removed from above them, no one would know the     difference. The executive superstructure is necessary     because humans do not operate by magic, but even a necessary     superstructure is a burden. We can readily recognize that     there are many ways to organize and manage such a     superstructure, resulting in vastly different degrees of     efficiency in the application of the workers' talents."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0163" text="Suppose that the activity of the     production workers was of the same nature as the activity of     the different contractors, and that this activity consisted     of gaining comprehension and solving problems. And suppose     that there was only so much applicable talent available to     the total system.  The question now becomes how to     distribute that talent between superstructure and workers to     get the most total production. The efficiency of     organization within the superstructure is now doubly     important so that a minimum of talent in the superstructure     produces a maximum of organizational efficiency in directing     the productivity of the remaining talent."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0164" text="In the situation where talent is     limited, we find a close parallel to our H-LAM/T system in     its pursuit of comprehension and problem solutions.  We     obtain an even closer parallel if we say that the thinking,     planning, supervising, record keeping, etc., for each     contractor is actually done by a single individual for the     whole superstructure, time- sharing his attention and     talents over these many tasks. Today this individual cannot     be depended upon to have any special training for many of     these roles; he is likely to have learned them by cut and     try and by indirect imitation."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0165" text="A complex process is often     executed by the H-LAM/T system in a multi-pass fashion     (i.e., cut and try). In really complex situations,     comprehension and problem solutions do not stand waiting at     the end of a straightforward path; instead, possibilities     open up and plans shift as comprehension grows.  In the     model using a network of contractors, this type of procedure     would entail a great deal of extra work within the     superstructure--each contractor involved in the process     would have the specifications upon which he bid continually     changed, and would continually have to respond to the     changes by restudying the situation, changing his plans,     changing the specifications to his subcontractors, and     changing his records. This is a terrific additional burden,     but it allows a freedom of action that has tremendous     importance to the effectiveness the system exhibits to the     outside world."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0166" text="We could expect significant gains     from automating the H- LAM/T system if a computer could do     nothing more than increase the effectiveness of the     executive processes. More human time, energy, and productive     thought could be allocated to direct-contributive processes,     which would be coordinated in a more sophisticated, flexible     and efficient manner. But there is every reason to believe     that the possibilities for much-improved symbol and process     structuring that would stem from this automation will     directly provide improvements in both the executive and     direct-contributive processes in the system."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0167" text="e. Flexibility in the Executive     Role">
            <outline hs:nid="0168" text="The executive superstructure is a     necessary component in the H-LAM/T system, and there is     finite human capability which must be divided between     executive and direct-contributive activities. An important     aspect of the multi-role activity of the human in the system     is the development and manipulation of the symbol structures     associated with &lt;i&gt;both&lt;/i&gt; his direct-contributive roles     and his executive roles."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0169" text="When the system encounters a     complex situation in which comprehension and problem     solutions are being pursued, the direct-contributive roles     require the development of symbol structures that portray     the concepts involved within the situation. But executive     roles in a complex problem situation also require conceptual     activity--e.g., comprehension, selection, supervision--that     can benefit from well-designed symbol structures and fast,     flexible means for manipulating and displaying them. For     complex processes, the executive problem posed to the human     (of gaining the necessary comprehension and making a good     plan) may be tougher than the problem he faced in the role     of direct-contributive worker. If the flexibility desired     for the process hierarchies (to make room for human     cut-and-try methods) is not to be degraded or abandoned, the     executive activity will have to be provided with fast and     flexible symbol-structuring techniques."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0170" text="The means available to humans     today for developing and manipulating these symbol     structures are both laborious and inflexible. It is hard     enough to develop an initial structure of diagrams and text,     but the amount of effort required to make changes is often     prohibitively great; one settles for inflexibility. Also,     the kind of generous flexibility that would be truly helpful     calls for added symbol structuring just to keep track of the     trials, branches, and reasoning thereto that are involved in     the development of the subject structure; our present     symbol-manipulation means would very soon bog down     completely among the complexities that are involved in being     more than just a little bit flexible."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0171" text="We find that the humans in our     H-LAM/T systems are essential working continuously within a     symbol structure of some sort, shifting their attention from     one structure to another as they guide and execute the     processes that ultimately provide them with the     comprehension and the problem solutions that they seek. This     view increases our respect for the essential importance of     the basic capability of composing and modifying efficient     symbol structures.  Such a capability depends heavily upon     the particular concepts that are isolated and manipulated as     entities, upon the symbology used to represent them, upon     the artifacts that help to manipulate and display the     symbols, and upon the methodology for developing and using     symbol structures. In other words, this capability depends     heavily upon proper language, artifacts, and methodology,     our basic augmentation means."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0172" text="When the course of action must     respond to new comprehension, new insights and new intuitive     flashes of possible explanations or solutions, it will not     be an orderly process. Existing means of composing and     working with symbol structures penalize disorderly processes     very heavily, and it is part of the real promise in the     automated H-LAM/T systems of tomorrow that the human can     have the freedom and power of disorderly processes."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0173" text="f. Compound Effects">
            <outline hs:nid="0174" text="Since many processes in many     levels of the hierarchy are involved in the execution of a     single higher-level process of the system, any factor that     influences process execution in general will have a highly     compounded total effect upon the system's performance. There     are several such factors which merit special attention."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0175" text="Basic human cognitive powers, such     as memory intelligence, or pattern perception can have such     a compounded effect. The augmentation means employed today     have generally evolved among large statistical populations,     and no attempt has been made to fit them to individual needs     and abilities. Each individual tends to evolve his own     variations, but there is not enough mutation and selection     activity, nor enough selection feedback, to permit very     significant changes. A good, automated H-LAM/T system should     provide the opportunity for a significant adaptation of the     augmentation means to individual characteristics. The     compounding effect of fundamental human cognitive powers     suggests further that systems designed for maximum     effectiveness would require that these powers be developed     as fully as possible--by training, special mental tricks,     improved language, new methodology."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0176" text="In the automated system that we     contemplate, the human should be able to draw on     explicit-artifact process capability at many levels in the     repertoire hierarchy; today, artifacts are involved     explicitly in only the lower-order capabilities. In the     future systems, for instance, it should be possible to have     computer processes provide direct and significant help in     his processes at many levels. We thus expect the effect of     the computer in the system to be very much compounded. A     great deal of richness in the future possibilities for     automated H-LAM/T systems is implied here--considerably more     than many people realize who would picture the computer as     just helping them do the things they do now. This type of     compounding is related to the reverberating waves of change     discussed in Section II-A."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0177" text="Another factor can exert this type     of compound effect upon over-all system performance: the     human's unconscious processes. Clinical psychology seems to     provide clear evidence that a large proportion of a human's     everyday activity is significantly mediated or basically     prompted by unconscious mental processes that, although     &quot;natura&quot; in a functional sense, are not rational. The     observable mechanisms of these processes (observable by     another, trained person) includes masking of the     irrationality of the human's actions which are so affected,     so that few of us will admit that our actions might be     irrational, and most of us can construct satisfying     rationales for any action that may be challenged. "/>
            <outline hs:nid="0178" text="Anything that might have so     general an effect upon our mental actions as is implied     here, is certainly a candidate for ultimate consideration in     the continuing development of our intellectual     effectiveness. It may be that the first stages of research     on augmenting the human intellect will have to proceed     without being able to do anything about this problem except     accommodate to it as well as possible. This may be one of     the very significant problems whose solution awaits our     development of increased intellectual effectiveness."/>
          </outline>
        </outline>
      </outline>
    </outline>
    <outline hs:nid="0179" text="III. EXAMPLES AND DISCUSSION">
      <outline hs:nid="0180" text="A. BACKGROUND">
        <outline hs:nid="0181" text="The conceptual structure which we have evolved to orient and guide the pursuit of increasing man's intellectual effectiveness has been des cribed in the foregoing sections in a rather general and abstract fashion. In this section we shall try to develop more concrete images of these concepts, of some of the future possibilities for augmentation, and of the relationship between these different concepts and possibilities."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0182" text="It must be borne in mind that a great deal of study and invention is yet to be done in developing the improved augmentation means that are bound to come, and that the examples which we present in this report are intended only to show what is meant by the generalizations which we use, and to provide a feeling on the part of the reader for the richness and power of the improvements we can likely develop in our augmentation means. Many of the examples are realizable today (in fact, some have been realized) and most of the rest are reasonably straight forward extrapolations into the near future. We predict that what actually develops in the new augmentation means will be consistent with our conceptual framework, but that the particulars will be full of surprises."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0183" text="Each of the examples will show a facet of how the little steps that the human can take with his sensory-mental-motor apparatus can be organized cooperatively with the capabilities of artifacts to accomplish significant things in the way of achieving comprehension and solving problems. This organization, as we have shown in Section II, can be viewed as the five different types of structuring which we outlined, where much of the structuring that goes on in the human's total problem solving activity is for the purpose of building a mental structure which in a way &quot;puts the human up where he can see what is going on and can point the direction to move next.&quot;"/>
        <outline hs:nid="0184" text="An early paper, offering suggestions toward augmenting the human intellect, that fits well and significantly within the framework which we have developed was written by Vannevar Bush &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-6&quot;&gt;(6)&lt;/a&gt; in 1945. Indeed, it fits so well, and states its points so nicely, thst it was deemed appropriate to our purpose here to summarize it in detail and to quote from it at considerable length."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0185" text="1. What Vannevar Bush proposed in   1945">
          <outline hs:nid="0186" text="He wrote as World War II was coming   to an end, and his principal purpose seemed to be to offer new   professional objectives to those scientists who were soon to   be freed from war-motivated research and development. It would   seem that he also wished to induce a general recognition of a   growing problem--storage, retrieval, and manipulation of   information for and by intellectual workers--and to show the   possibilities he foresaw for scientific development of   equipment which could significantly aid such workers in facing   this problem. He summarized the situation: &quot;...There is a   growing mountain of research...The investigator is staggered   by the findings and conclusions of thousands of other workers.   Professionally our methods of transmitting and reviewing the   results of research are generations old...truly significant   attainments become lost in the mass of the   inconsequential...The summation of human experience is being   expanded at a prodigious rate, and the means we use for   threading through the consequent maze to the momentarily   important item is the same as was used in the days of   square-rigged ships.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0187" text="Then he brought out some general   considerations for hope: &quot;.. But there are signs of a change   as new and powerful instrumentalities come into   use...Photocells...advanced photography...thermionic   tubes... cathode ray tubes...relay combinations...there are   plenty of mechanical aids with which to effect a   transformation in scientific records.&quot; And he points out that   devices which we commonly use today--e.g., a calculating   machine or an automobile--would have been impossibly expensive   to produce in earlier eras of our technological   development. &quot;...The world has arrived at an age of cheap   complex devices of great reliability and something is bound to   come of it.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0188" text="In six and a half pages crammed full   of well-based speculations, Bush proceeds to outline enough   plausible artifact and methodology developments to make a very   convincing case for the augmentation of the individual   intellectual worker. Extension of existing photographic   techniques to give each individual a continuously available   miniature camera for recording anything in view and of   interest, and to realize a high-quality 100:1 linear reduction   ratio for micro-record files for these photographs and   published material; voice-recognition equipment (perhaps   requiring a special language) to ease the process of entering   new self-generated material into the written record--these are   to provide the individual with information-generating aid."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0189" text="For the detailed manipulation of   mathematical and logical expressions, Bush projects computing   aids (which have been surpassed by subsequent development)   that allow the individual to exercise a greater proportion of   his time and talents in the tasks of selecting data and the   appropriate transformations and processes which are to be   executed, leaving to the machinery the subsequent   execution. He suggests that new notation for our verbal   symbols (perhaps binary) could allow character recognition   devices to help even further in the information-manipulation   area, and also points out that poor symbolism (&quot;...the   exceedingly crude way in which mathematicians express their   relationships. They employ a symbolism which grew like Topsy   and has little consistency; a strange fact in that most   logical field.&quot;) stands in the way of full realization of   machine help for the manipulations associated with the human's   real time process of mathematical work. And &quot;...Then, on   beyond the strict logic of the mathematician, lies the   application of logic in everyday affairs. We may some day   click off arguments on a machine with the same assurance that   we now enter sales on a cash register.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0190" text="Then &quot; ..So much for the manipulation   of ideas and their insertion into the record. Thus far we seem   to be worse off than before--for we can enormously extend the   record; yet even in its present bulk we can hardly consult   it. This is a much larger matter than merely the extraction of   data for the purposes of scientific research; it involves the   entire process by which man profits by his inheritance of   acquired knowledge The prime action of use is selection, and   here we are halting indeed. There may be millions of fine   thoughts, and the account of the experience on which they are   based, all encased within stone walls of acceptable   architectural form; but if the scholar can get at only one a   week by diligent search, his syntheses are not likely to keep   up with the current scene.&quot; He goes on to discuss possible   developments that could allow very rapid (in the human's time   frame) selection of unit records from a very large file--where   the records could be dry-process photographic micro-images   upon which the user could add lnformation at will."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0191" text="Bush goes on to say, &quot;The real heart   of the matter of selection, however, goes deeper than a lag in   the adoption of mechanisms...Our ineptitude in getting at the   record is largely caused by the artificiality of systems of   indexing.&quot; He observes the power of the associative recall   which human memory exhibits, and proposes that a mechanization   of selection by association could be realized to considerable   advantage. He spends the last two pages (a quarter of his   article) describing a device embodying this capability, and   points out some features of its use and of its likely   effect. This material is so relevant and so well put that I   quote it in its entirety:"/>
          <outline hs:nid="" text="">
            <outline hs:nid="0192" text="&quot;Consider a future device for     individual use, which is a sort of mechanized private file     and library. It needs a name, and to coin one at random,     &quot;memex&quot; will do. A memex is a device in which an individual     stores all his books, records, and communications, and which     is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding     speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement     to his memory."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0193" text="&quot;It consists of a desk, and while     it can presumably be operated from a distance, it is     primarily the piece of furniture at which he works.  On the     top are slanting translucent screens, on which material can     be projected for convenient reading. There is a keyboard,     and sets of buttons and levers.  Otherwise it looks like an     ordinary desk."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0194" text="&quot;In one end is the stored     material. The matter of bulk is well taken care of by     improved microfilm. Only a small part of the interior of the     memex is devoted to storage, the rest to mechanism. Yet if     the user inserted 5000 pages of material a day it would take     him hundreds of years to fill the repository, so he can be     profligate and enter material freely."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0195" text="&quot;Most of the memex contents are     purchased on microfilm ready for insertion. Books of all     sorts, pictures, current periodicals, newspapers, are thus     obtained and dropped into place. Business correspondence     takes the same path. And there is provision for direct     entry. On the top of the memex is a transparent platen. On     this are placed longhand notes, photographs, memoranda, all     sort of things. When one is in place, the depression of a     lever causes it to be photographed onto the next blank space     in a section of the memex film, dry photography being     employed."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0196" text="&quot;There is, of course, provision     for consultation of the record by the usual scheme of     indexing. If the user wishes to consult a certain book, he     taps its code on the keyboard, and the title page of the     book promptly appears before him, projected onto one of his     viewing positions.  Frequently-used codes are mnemonic, so     that he seldom consults his code book; but when he does, a     single tap of a key projects it for his use.  Moreover, he     has supplemental levers. On deflecting one of these levers     to the right he runs through the book before him, each page     in turn being projected at a speed which just allows a     recognizing glance at each. If he deflects it further to the     right, he steps through the book 10 pages at a time; still     further at 100 pages at a time. Deflection to the left gives     him the same control backwards."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0197" text="&quot;A special button transfers him     immediately to the first page of the index. Any given book     of his library can thus be called up and consulted with far     greater facility than if it were taken from a shelf. As he     has several projection positions, he can leave one item in     position while he calls up another. He can add marginal     notes and comments, taking advantage of one possible type of     dry photography, and it could even be arranged so that he     can do this by a stylus scheme, such as is now employed in     the telautograph seen in railroad waiting rooms, just as     though he had the physical page before him."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0198" text="&quot;All this is conventional, except     for the projection forward of present-day mechanisms and     gadgetry. If affords an immediate step, however, to     associative indexing, the basic idea of which is a provision     whereby any item may be caused at will to select immediately     and automatically another. This is the essential feature of     the memex. The process of tying two items together is the     important thing."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0199" text="&quot;When the user is building a     trail, he names it, inserts the name in his code book, and     taps it out on his keyboard. Before him are the two items to     be joined, projected onto adjacent viewing positions. At the     bottom of each there are a number of blank code spaces, and     a pointer is set to indicate one of these on each item. The     user taps a single key, and the items are permanently     joined. In each code space appears the code word.  Out of     view, but also in the code space, is inserted a set of dots     for photocell viewing; and on each item these dots by their     positions designate the index number of the other item."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0200" text="&quot;Thereafter, at any time, when one     of these items is in view, the other can be instantly     recalled merely by tapping a button below the corresponding     code space. Moreover, when numerous items have been thus     joined together to form a trail, they can be reviewed in     turn, rapidly or slowly, by deflecting a lever like that     used for turning the pages of a book. It is exactly as     though the physical items had been gathered together to form     a new book.  It is more than this, for any item can be     joined into numerous trails."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0201" text="&quot;The owner of the memex, let us     say, is interested in the origin and properties of the bow     and arrow. Specifically he is studying why the short Turkish     bow was apparently superior to the English long bow in the     skirmishes of the Crusades. He has dozens of possibly     pertinent books and articles in his memex. First he runs     through an encyclopedia, finds and interesting but sketchy     article, leaves it projected, Next, in a history, he finds     another pertinent item, and ties the two together. Thus he     goes, building a trail of many items. Occasionally he     inserts a comment of his own, either linking it into the     main trail or joining it by a side trail to a particular     item. When it becomes evident that the elastic properties of     available materials had a great deal to do with the bow, he     branches off on a side trail which takes him through     textbooks on elasticity and tables of physical constants. He     inserts a page of longhand analysis of his own. Thus he     builds a trail of his interest through the maze of materials     available to him."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0202" text="&quot;And his trails do not     fade. Several years later, his talk with a friend turns to     the queer ways in which a people resist innovations, even of     vital interest. He has an example, in the fact that the     outranged Europeans still failed to adopt the Turkish     bow. In fact he has a trail on it. A touch brings up the     code book. Tapping a few keys projects the head of the     trail. A lever runs through it at will, stopping at     interesting items, going off on side excursions. It is an     interesting trail, pertinent to the discussion. So he sets a     reproducer in action, photographs the whole trail out, and     passes it to his friend for insertion in his own memex,     there to be linked into the more general trail."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0203" text="&quot;Wholly new forms of     encyclopedias will appear, ready-made with a mesh of     associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped     into the memex and there amplified. The lawyer has at his     touch the associated opinions and decisions of his whole     experience, and of the experience of friends and     authorities. The patent attorney has on call the millions of     issued patents, with familiar trails to every point of his     client's interest.  The physician, puzzled by its patient's     reactions, strikes the trail established in studying an     earlier similar case, and runs rapidly through analogous     case histories, with side references to the classics for the     pertinent anatomy and histology. The chemist, struggling     with the synthesis of an organic compound, has all the     chemical literature before him in his laboratory, with     trails following the analogies of compounds, and side trails     to their physical and chemical behavior."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0204" text="&quot;The historian, with a vast     chronological account of a people, parallels it with a skip     trail which stops only at the salient items, and can follow     at any time contemporary trails which lead him all over     civilization at a particular epoch. There is a new     profession of trail blazers, those who find delight in the     task of establishing useful trails through the enormous mass     of the common record. The inheritance from the master     becomes, not only his additions to the world's record, but     for his disciples the entire scaffolding by which they were     erected."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0205" text="&quot;Thus science may implement the     ways in which man produces, stores, and consults the record     of the race. It might be striking to outline the     instrumentalities of the future more spectacularly, rather     than to stick closely to the methods and elements now known     and undergoing rapid development, as has been done     here. Technical difficulties of all sorts have been ignored,     certainly, but also ignored are means as yet unknown which     may come any day to accelerate technical progress as     violently as did the advent of the thermionic tube. In order     that the picture may not be too commonplace, by reason of     sticking to present-day patterns, it may be well to mention     one such possibility, not to prophesy but merely to suggest,     for prophecy based on extension of the known has substance,     while prophecy founded on the unknown is only a doubly     involved guess."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0206" text="&quot;All our steps in creating or     absorbing material of the record proceed through one of the     senses - the tactile when we touch keys, the oral when we     speak or listen, the visual when we read. Is it not possible     that some day the path may be established more directly?"/>
            <outline hs:nid="0207" text="&quot;We know that when the eye sees,     all the consequent information is transmitted to the brain     by means of electrical vibrations in the channel of the     optic nerve. This is an exact analogy with the electrical     vibrations which occur in the cable of a television set:     they convey the picture from the photocells which see it to     the radio transmitter from which it is broadcast.  We know     further that if we can approach that cable with the proper     instruments, we do not need to touch it; we can pick up     those vibrations by electrical induction and thus discover     and reproduce the scene which is being transmitted, just as     a telephone wire may be tapped for its message."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0208" text="&quot;The impulse which flow in the     arm nerves of a typist convey to her fingers the translated     information which reaches her eye or ear, in order that the     fingers may be caused to strike the proper keys. Might not     these currents be intercepted, either in the original form     in which information is conveyed to the brain, or in the     marvelously metamorphosed form in which they then proceed to     the hand?"/>
            <outline hs:nid="0209" text="&quot;By bone conduction we already     introduce sounds into the nerve channels of the deaf in     order that they may hear. Is it not possible that we may     learn to introduce them without the present cumbersomeness     of first transforming electrical vibrations to mechanical     ones, which the human mechanism promptly transforms back to     the electrical form? With a couple of electrodes on the     skull the encephalograph now produces pen-and-ink traces     which bear some relation to the electrical phenomena going     on in the brain itself. True, the record is unintelligible,     except as it points out certain gross misfunctioning of the     cerebral mechanism; but who would now place bounds on where     such a thing may lead?"/>
            <outline hs:nid="0210" text="&quot;In the outside world, all forms     of intelligence, whether of sound or sight, have been     reduced to the form of varying currents in an electric     circuit in order that they may be transmitted. Inside the     human frame exactly the same sort of process occurs. Must we     always transform to mechanical movements in order to proceed     from one electrical phenomenon to another?  It is a     suggestive thought, but it hardly warrants prediction     without losing touch with reality and immediateness."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0211" text="&quot;Presumably man's spirit should     be elevated if he can better review his shady past and     analyze more completely and objectively his present     problems. He has built a civilization so complex that he     needs to mechanize his record more fully if he is to push     his experiment to its logical conclusion and not merely     become bogged down part way there by overtaxing his limited     memory. His excursion may be more enjoyable if he can     reacquire the privilege of forgetting the manifold things he     does not need to have immediately at hand, with some     assurance that he can find them again if they prove     important."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0212" text="&quot;The applications of science have     built man a well-supplied house, and are teaching him to     live healthily therein. They have enabled him to throw     masses of people against another with cruel weapons. They     may yet allow him truly to encompass the great record and to     grow in the wisdom of race experience. He may perish in     conflict before he learns to wield that record for his true     good. Yet, in the application of science to the needs and     desires of man, it would seem to be a singularly unfortunate     stage at which to terminate the process, or to lose hope as     to the outcome."/>
          </outline>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0213" text="2. Comments Related to Bush's   Article">
          <outline hs:nid="0214" text="There are many significant items in   the article, but the main ones upon which we shall comment   here will be those relative to the use and implications of his   Memex. The associative trails whose establishment and use   within the files he describes at some length provide a   beautiful example of a new capsbility in symbol structuring   that derives from new artifact-process capability, and that   provides new ways to develop and portray concept structures.   Any file is a symbol structure whose purpose is to represent a   variety of concepts and concept structures in a way that makes   them maximally available and useful to the needs of the   human's mental-structure development -- within the limits   imposed by the capability of the artifacts and human for   jointly executing processes of symbol-structure   manipulation. The Memex allows a human user to do more   conveniently (less energy, more quickly) what he could have   done with relatively ordinary photographic equipment and   filing systems, but he would have had to spend so much time in   the lower-level processes of manipulation that his mental time   constants of memory and patience would have rendered the   system unusable in the detailed and intimate sense which Bush   illustrates."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0215" text="The Memex adds a factor of speed and   convenience to ordinary filing-system (symbol-structuring)   processes that would encourage new methods of work by the   user, and it also adds speed and convenience for processes not   generally used before. Making it easy to establish and follow   the associative trails makes practical a new   symbol-structuring process whose use can make a significant   difference in the concept structuring and bssic methods of   work. It is also probable that clever usage of   associative-trail manipulation can augment the human's process   structuring and executing capacilities so that he could   successfully make use of even more powerful symbol-structure   manlpulation processes utilizing the Memex capabilities. An   example of this general sort of thing was given by Bush where   he points out that the file index can be called to view at the   push of a button, which implicitly provides greater capability   to work within more sophisticated and complex indexing   systems"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0216" text="Note, too, the implications extending   from Bush's mention of one user duplicating a trail (a portion   of his structure) and giving it to a friend who can put it   into his Memex and integrate it into his own trail   (structure).  Also note the &quot;wholly new forms of   encyclopedia&quot;, the profession of &quot;trail blazers,&quot; and the   inheritance from a master including &quot;the entire scaffolding&quot;   by which such additions to the world's record were   erected. These illustrate the types of changes in the ways in   which people can cooperate intellectually that can emerge from   the augmentation of the individuals. This type of change   represents a very significant part of the potential value in   pursuing research directly on the means for making individuals   intellectually more effective."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0217" text="3. Some Possibilities with Cards and   Relatively Simple Equipment">
          <outline hs:nid="0218" text="A number of useful new structuring   processes can be made available to an individual through   development and use of relatively simple equipment that is   mostly electromechanical in nature and relatively cheap. We   can begin developing examples of this by describing the hand   operated, edge-notched card system that I developed and used   over the past eight years."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0219" text="a. An Existing Note and File     System">
            <outline hs:nid="0220" text="The &quot;unit records&quot; here, unlike     those in the Memex example, are generally scraps of typed or     handwritten text on IBM-card sized edge-notchable     cards. These represent little &quot;kernels&quot; of data, thought,     fact, considerationJ concepts, ideas, worries, etc., that     are relevant to a given problem area in my professional     life. Each such specific problem area has its notecards kept     in a separate deck, and for each such deck there is a master     card with descriptors associated with individual holes about     the periphery of the card. There is a field of holes     reserved for notch coding the serial number of a reference     from which the note on a card may have been taken, or the     serial number corresponding to an individual from whom the     information came directly (including a code for myself, for     self-generated thoughts)."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0221" text="None of the principles of indexing     or sorting used here is new: coordinate-indexing descriptors     with direct coding on edge notched cards, with needle-sort     retrieval. Mainly what is new is the use of the smaller     units of information, in restricted-subject sets (notedecks)     so that I gain considerable flexibility in the manipulations     of my thought products at the level at which I actually work     in my minute-by-minute struggle with analytical and     formulative thought.  Not only do my own thoughts produce     results in this fashion, but when I digest the writings of     another person, I find generally anyway that I have     extracted from his structure and integrated into my own a     specific selection of facts, considerations, ideas,     etc. Often these different extracted items fit into     different places in my structure, or become encased in     special substructures as I modify or expand his     concepts. Extracting such items or kernels and putting each     on its own notecard helps this process considerably--the     role or position of each such item in the growth of the note     structure is independent, and yet if desired all can quickly     be isolated and extracted by simple needle sorting on the     reference-number notching field."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0222" text="These notecards represent much     more than just an in formation file.  They provide a     workspace for me, in which I can browse, make additions or     corrections, or build new sets of thought kernels with a     good deal of freedom. I can leave notes with suggestions or     questions for myself that will drop out at an appropriate     later time. I can do document-reference searches with good     efficiency, too, by needle sorting for notes within relevant     descriptor categories Any notecard with relevant notes on it     points to the original source (by the source serial number,     which I always write, together with the page, at the top of     the card). When I am in the process of developing an     integrated writeup covering some or all of the notedeck'g     material, I can quickly needle out a set of cards relevant     to the topic under consideration at the moment--with all     other cards in one pile to the side--and I need do a very     minimum of hand searching or stacking in special little     category piles. If I utilize specific information from     another person, I can register my acknowledgment in my draft     writeup merely by writing in the source serial number that     is at the top of the notecard--it is a straight forward     clerical job for a secretary later to arrange footnote     entries and numbering."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0223" text="b. Comments on the System">
            <outline hs:nid="0224" text="First, let me relate what has been     described to the special terms brought out in previous     sections. The writing contained on each notecard is a     small-sized symbol structure, representing or portraying to     me a small structure of concepts. The notches on the edges     of the cards are symbols that serve to tie these card-sized     symbol sub structures into a large symbol structure (the     notedeck). One aspect of the structure is the physical     grouping of the cards at a given time-- which happens to be     the only aspect of the over-all structuring that my human     capabilities can make direct use of--and in this respect I     can execute processes which produce restructuring (that is,     physical re grouping) that helps me considerably to perceive     and assimilate the concepts of worth to me. This     restructuring is effected by composite processes involving     me, a master code card, a sorting needle, and a work     surface. I can add to the symbol structure by executing     other composite processes which involve me, writing     instruments (pen, pencil, or type writer), a master code     card, and a card notcher."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0225" text="If my mental processes were more     powerful, I could dispense with the cards, and hold all of     the card-sized concept structures in my memory, where also     would be held the categorization linkages that evolved as I     worked (with my feet up on the artifacts and my eyes     closed). As it is, and as it probably always will be no     matter how we develop or train our mental capabilities, I     want to work in problem areas where the number and     interrelationship complexity of the individual factors     involved are too much for me to hold and manipulate within     my mind. So, my mind develops conscious sets of concepts, or     recognizes and selects them from what it perceives in the     work of others, and it directs the organization of an     external symbol structure in which can be held and portrayed     to the mind those concepts I cannot (reliably) remember or     whose manipulations I cannot visualize. The price I pay for     this augmentation shows up in the time and energy involved     in manipulating artifacts to manipulate symbols to give me     this artificial memory and visualization of concepts and     their manipulation."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0226" text="c. Associative-Linking     Possibilities">
            <outline hs:nid="0227" text="But let us go further with     discussing specific examples of means for augmenting our     intellects. In using the edge-notched-card system described,     I found several types of structuring which that system could     not provide, but which would both be very useful and     probably ob tainable with reasonably practical artifact     means. One need arose quite commonly as trains of thought     would develop on a growing series of note cards. There was     no convenient way to link these cards together so that the     train of thought could later be recalled by extracting the     ordered series of notecards. An associative-trail scheme     similar to that out lined by Bush for his Memex could     conceivably be implemented with these cards to meet this     need and add a valuable new symbol-structuring process to     the system. Straightforward engineering development could     provide a mechanism that would be able to select a specific     card from a relatively large deck by a parallel edge-notch     sort on a unique serial number notched into each card, and     the search mechanism could be set up automatically by a hole     sensing mechanism from internal punches on another card that     was placed in the sensing slot. An auxiliary notching     mechanism could automatically give succeeding serial-number     encoding to new notecards as they are made up."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0228" text="Suppose that one wants to link     Card B to Card A, to make a trail from A to B. He puts Card     B into a slot so that the edge-notched coding of the card's     serial number can automatically be sensed, and slips Card A     under a hole-punching head which duplicates the     serial-number code of Card B in the coding of the holes     punched in a speciflc zone on Card A. Later, when he may     have discovered Card A, and wishes to follow this particular     associative trail to the next card, he aligns that zone on     Card A under a hole-sensing head which reads the serial     number for Card B therein and automatically sets up the     sorting mechanism. A very quick and simple human process     thus initiates the automatic extraction of the next item on     the associative trail. It's not unreasonable to assume that     establishing a link would take about three seconds, and     tracing a link to the next card about three to five     seconds."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0229" text="There would still be     descriptor-code notching and selection to provide for     general grouping classifications--and we can see that the     system could really provide a means for &lt;i&gt;working within&lt;/i&gt; the structure of the contained information."/>
          </outline>
          <outline hs:nid="0230" text="d. An Experiment Illustrating Usage     and Further System Possibilities">
            <outline hs:nid="0231" text="I once tried to use my cards, with     their separate little &quot;concept packets,&quot; in the process of     developing a file memo outlining the status and plans of a     research project. I first developed a set of cards upon each     of which I described a separate consideration, possibility,     or specification about the memo--in the disorderly sequence     in which they occurred to me as my thoughts about the basic     features of the memo evolved. Right off the bat I noticed     that there were two distinct groups--some ideas were about     what the memo ought to accomplish, what time period it     should cover, when it should be finished, what level and     style of presentation should be used, etc., and some ideas     were about the sub ject of the memo. As more thoughts     developed, I found that the latter group also divided into     ideas representing possible content and those representing     possible organization."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0232" text="I separated the cards into three     corresponding groups (which I shall call Specification,     Organization, and Content), and began to organize each of     them. I started with the Specification group (it being the     &quot;highest&quot; in nature), and immediately found that there were     several types of notes within that group Just as there had     been in the total group. Becoming immediately suspicious, I     sorted through each of the other two main groups and found     similar situations in each. In each group there was finally     to emerge a definite set of statements (product statements)     that represented that group's purpose--e.g., the     specifications currently accepted for the design of the     memo--and some of the cards contained candidate material for     this.  But there were also considerations about what these     final statements might include or exclude or take into     account, or conditions under which inclusion or modification     might be relevant, or statements that were too bulky or     brief or imprecise to be used as final statements."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0233" text="It became apparent that the final     issuance from my work, the memo itself, would represent but     one facet of a complex symbol structure that would grow as     the work progressed--a structure comprising three main     substructures, each of which had definite substructuring of     its own that was apparent.  I realized that I was being     rather philosophi cally introspective with all of this     analysis, but I was curious as to the potential value of     future augmentation means in allowing me to deal explicitly     with these types of structuring. So I went ahead, keeping     the groups and sub-groups of cards separated, and trying to     organize and develop them."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0234" text="I found rather quickly that the     job of extracting, re arranging, editing, and copying new     statements into the cards which were to represent the     current set of product statements in each grouping was     rather tedious. This brought me to appreciate the value of     some sort of copying device with which I could transfer     specified strings of words from one card to another, thus     composing new statements from fragments of existing     ones. This type of device should not be too hard to develop     and produce for a price that a professional man could     justify paying, and it would certainly facilitate some     valuable symbol-structuring pro"/>
            <outline hs:nid="0235" text="I also found that there would have     been great value in having available the associative-trail     marking and following processes. Statements very often had     implicit linkages to other statements in the same group, and     it would have been very useful to keep track of these     associations. For instance, when several consideration     statements bore upon a given product statement, and when     that product statement came to be modified through some     other consideration, it was not always easy to remember why     it had been establishe has it had. Being able to fish out     the other considerations linked to that statement would have     helped considerably."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0236" text="Also, trial organizations of the     statements in a group could be linked into trial associative     trails, so that a number of such organizations could be     constructed and considered without copying that many sets of     specially ordered statements. Any of the previously     considered organizations could be reconstructed at will."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0237" text="In trying to do flexible     structuring and restructuring within my experiment, I found     that I just didn't have the means to keep track of all of     the kernel statements (cards) and the various relation ships     between them that were important--at least by means that     were easy enough to leave time and thought capacity enough     for me to keep in mind the essential nature of the     memo-writing process. But it was a very provocative     experience, considering the possibilities that I sensed for     the flexible and powerful ways in which I could apply myself     to so universal a design task if I but had the necessary     means with which to manipulate symbol structures."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0238" text="It would actually seem quite     feasible to develop a unit record system around cards and     mechanical sorting, with automatic trail establishment and     trail-following facility, and with associated means for     selective copying or data transfer, that would enable     development of some very powerful methodology for everyday     intellectual work. It is plain that even if the equipment     (artifacts) appeared on the market tomorrow, a good deal of     empirical research would be needed to develop a methodology     that would capitalize upon the artifact process     capabilities. New concepts need to be concelved and tested     relative to the way the &quot;thought kernels&quot; could be knitted     together into working structures, and relative to the     conceptual presentations which become available and the     symbol-manipulation processes which provide these     presentations."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0239" text="Such an approach would present     useful and interesting research problems, and could very     likely produce practical and significant results (language,     artifacts, methodology) for improving the effective ness of     professional problem solvers. However, the technological     trends of today foretell the obsolescence of such     electromechanical information handling equipment.  Very     likely, by the time good augmentation systems could be     developed, and the first groups of users began to prove them     out so that they could gain more widespread acceptance,     electronic data processing equipment would have evolved much     further and become much more prevalent throughout the     critical-problem domains of our society where such ideas     would first be adopted. The relative limitations of the     mechanical equipment in providing processes which could be     usefully inte grated into the system would soon lead to its     replacement by electronic computer equipment."/>
            <outline hs:nid="0240" text="The next set of descriptive     examples will involve the use of electronic computers, and     their greatly increased flexibility and processing potential     will be evident. Research based upon such electronic     artifacts would be able to explore language and methodology     innovations of a much wider range of sophistication than     could research based upon limited and relatively inflexible     electromechanical artifacts. In particular, the     electronic-based experimental program could simulate the     types of processes available from electromechanical     artifacts, if it seemed possible (from the vantage of     experience with the wide range of augmentation processes)     that relatively powerful augmentation systems could be based     upon their capabilities--but the relative payoffs for     providing even-more-sophisticated artifact capabilities     could be assessed too so that considerations of how much to     invest in capital equipment versus how much increase in     human effectiveness to expect could be based upon some     experimental data."/>
          </outline>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0241" text="4. A Quick Summary of Relevant   Computer Technology">
          <outline hs:nid="0242" text="This section may be of value both to   readers who are already familiar with computers, and to those   who are not. A little familiarity with computer technology,   enough to help considerably in understanding the augmentation   possibilities discussed in thls report, can be gained by the   uninitiated.  For those already familiar with the technology,   the following discussion can perhaps help them gain more   understanding of our concepts of process and symbol   structuring."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0243" text="A computer is directly capable of   performing any of a basic repertoire of very primitive   symbol-manipulation processes (such as &quot;move the symbol in   location A to location 12417,&quot; or &quot;compare the symbol in   location A with that in location B, and if they are the same,   set switch S to ON&quot;). There may be from ten to over a hundred   different primitive processes which a particular machine can   execute, and all of the computer's more sophisticated   processes are structured from these primitive processes.  It   takes a repertoire of surprisingly few such primitive   processes to enable the construction of any   symbol-manipulation process that can be explicitly described   in any language."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0244" text="Somewhat the same situation exists   relative to symbol structures i.e., there are only a very few   primitive symbols with which the machine can actually work,   and any new and different symbol has to be defined to the   machine as a particular structure (or organization) of its   primitive symbols.  Actually, in every commercial digital   computer, there are only two primitive symbols. Usually these   are dealt with in standard-sized packets (called &quot;words&quot;) of   from eighteen to forty-eight primitive symbols, but arbitrary   use can be made of individual primitives or of subgroups of   the word."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0245" text="To have the computer perform a   non-trivial task or process, a structure of the primitive   processes is organized (a computer program) and stored within   the computer as a corresponding symbol structure. The computer   successively examines the symbol substructure representing   each primitive process in the program and executes that   process--which usually alters the total internal symbol   structure of the machine in some way. Lt makes no difference   to the computer whether the symbols involved in the   re-structuring represent part of the computer program or part   of the lnformation upon which the program is operating. The   ability to have the computer modify its own process structure   (program) hss been a very im portant factor in the development   of its power."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0246" text="Thus, some very sophisticated   techniques for process and symbol structuring have evolved in   the computer field, as evidenced by the very sophisticated   processes (e.g., predicting election returns, calculating   orbits, translating natural languages) that can be structured   to manipulate very complex structures of symbols. Among the   more interesting computer-process structures that have evolved   are those that can automatically develop a structure of   primitive computer processes to accomplish symbol manipulation   tasks that are specified on a relatively high level of   abstraction. Special languages have been evolved in several   fields (e.g., ALGOL and FORTRAN for scientific calculations,   COBOL for business processing) that enable explicit   prescription of complex manipulation processes in a rapid and   concise manner by a human, thinking about the processes in a   rather natural manner, so that special computer programs or   process structures (called Translators, Compilers, or   sometimes in a slightly different sense, Interpreters) can   construct the necessary structures of primitive processes and   symbols that would enable the computer to execute the   prescribed processes. This development has extended immensely   our capability for making use of computers--otherwise the   specification of a complex process would often occupy a   formidable number of man hours, and be subject to a great many   errors which would be very costly to find and correct."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0247" text="Computers have been used to simulate   dynamic systems for which we humans had none but descriptive   models, from which we otherwise could gain little feel for the   way the system behaves. A very notable instance of this, for   our consideration, has been in the area of the human thought   processes.  Newell, Shaw, and Simon initiated this approach)   from which there has derived a number of features of interest   to us. For one, they discovered that the symbol structures and   the process structures required for such simulation became   exceedingly complex, and the burden of organizing these was a   terrific impediment to their simulation research. They devised   a structurlng technique for their symbols that is basically   simple but from which stem results that are very   elegant. Their baslc symbol structure is what they call a   'list,&quot; a string of substructures that are linked serially in   exactly the manner proposed by Bush for the associative trails   in his Memex--i.e., each substructure contains the necessary   information for locating the next substructure on the   list. Here, though, each substructure could also be a list of   substructures, and each of these could also, etc. Their   standard manner for organizing the data which the computer was   to operate upon is thus what they term &quot;list structuring.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0248" text="They also developed special languages   to descrlbe different basic processes involved in   list-structure manipulation. The most widely used of their   languages, IPL-V (the fifth version of their Information   Processing Languages), is described in a recent book edited by   Newell.(&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-7&quot;&gt;7&lt;/a&gt;) In these languages, both   the data to be worked upon and the symbols which designate the   processes to be executed upon that data are developed in   list-structure form."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0249" text="Other languages and techniques for   the manipulation of list structures have been described by McCarthy,(&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-8&quot;&gt;8&lt;/a&gt;) by Gelernter, Hansen, and Gerberich, (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-9&quot;&gt;9&lt;/a&gt;) by Yngve, (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-10&quot;&gt;10&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-11&quot;&gt;11&lt;/a&gt;) by Perlis and Thornton, (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-12&quot;&gt;12&lt;/a&gt;) by Carr, (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-13&quot;&gt;13&lt;/a&gt;) and by Weizenbaum.(&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-14&quot;&gt;14&lt;/a&gt;) The application of these techniques   has been mainly of two types--one of modelling complex   processes and systems (e.g., the human thought processes),   where the emphasis is upon the model and its behavior, and the   other of trying to get computer behavior that is intelligent   whether or not the processes and behavior resemble those of a   human. The languages and techniques used in both types of   application promise to be of considerable value to the   development of radical new augmentation systems for human   problem solvers, and we shall deal later with them in more   detail."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0250" text="Computers have various means for   storing symbols so that they are accessible to it for   manipulation. Assuming that the human might want to have a   repertoire of sixty-four basic symbols (letters, numbers,   special symbols), we can discuss various forms of storage in   terms of their capacity for storing these kinds of symbols   (each oi which would be structured, in the computer and   storage devices, as a group of six primitive computer   symbols). Fast access to an arbitrary choice of a few   neighboring symbols (of the human's repertoire) can be had to   perhaps 100,000 such symbols within the period in which the   computer can execute one of its primitive processes (from two   to ten millionths of a second, depending upon the computer   involved).  This is the so-called high-speed, random-access   working store, where space for the human's symbols might cost   between sixty cents and $1.50 per symbol."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0251" text="Cheaper, larger-capacity backup   storage is usually provided by devices to which access takes   considerably longer (in the computer's time reference).  A   continuously rotating magnetic drum can hold perhaps a million   of these symbols, for which access to a random storage   position may average a thirtieth of a second (waiting for the   drum to come around to bring that storage position under the   magnetic reading head). This is short in the human's time   scale, but a reasonably fast computer could execute about   3,000 of its primitive processes during that time. Generally,   information transfer between a drum and fast-access working   storage takes place in blocks of data which are stored in   successive positions around the drum. Such block-transfer is   accomplished by a relatively small structure of primitive   computer processes that cyclically executes the transfer of   one word at a time until the designated block has been trans   ferred. Drum storage costs about 5 cents per each of the basic   symbols used by the human in our example."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0252" text="Another type of backup storage uses a   number of large, thin discs (about three feet in diameter),   with magnetic coating on the sur faces. The discs are stacked   with enough space between each so that a moveable read-record   head can be positioned radially to line up over a specific   circular track of symbol storage space. A commercially   available disc storage system could hold over a hundred   million of the human's basic symbols, to which random access   would average about a tenth of a second, and where the cost   per symbol-space would be about one seventh of a cent."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0253" text="Magnetic tapes are commonly used for   backup storage, too. For these, the random access time for   storage blocks are of the order of a minute or two. Here,   however, the actual storage units (the tape reels) can be   taken off and shelf stored, so the total storage capacity may   be very large--however, the time to locate a reel and exchange   reels on the tape transport adds to the above-quoted access   time--and this locating and reel changing are not generally   automatic processes (i.e., a human has to do them). A   transport unit, connected to the computer, might cost $30,000,   with tape reels at $50 each holding about five million of the   human's basic symbols. For one reel, storage space for each   such symbol cost about two-thirds of a cent, but for twenty   full reels in a &quot;library&quot; the cost comes down to about   one-thirtieth of a cent per symbol space."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0254" text="Other types of buffer storage for   computer symbol structures are becoming available, and there   is considerable economic demand spurring continuing research   toward storage means that give high capacity at low cost, and   with as short an access time as possible. Within the next ten   years there would seem to be a very high probability of   significant ad vances to this end."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0255" text="For presenting computer-stored   information to the human, techniques have been developed by   which a cathode-ray-tube (of which the television picture tube   is a familiar example) can be made to present symbols on their   screens of quite good brightness, clarity, and with   considerable freedom as to the form of the symbol. Under   computer control an arbitrary collection of symbols may be   arranged on the screen, with considerable freedom as to   relative location, size, and brightness. Similarly, line   drawings, curves, and graphs may be presented, with any of the   other symbols intermixed.  It is possible to describe to the   computer, and thereafter use, new symbols of arbitrary shape   and size. On displays of this sort, a light pen (a pen-shaped   tool with a flexible wire to the electronic console) can be   pointed by the human at any symbol or line on the display, and   the computer can automatically determine what the pen is   pointing at."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0256" text="A cathode-ray-tube display of this   sort is currently limited in resolution to about 800 lines   across the face of the tube (in either direction). The detail   with which a symbol may be formed, and the preciseness with   which the recurrent images of it may be located, are both   affected by this figure so that no matter how large the screen   of such a tube, the maximum number of symbols that can be put   on with usable clearness remains the same."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0257" text="The amount of usable information on   such a screen, in the form of letters, numbers, and diagrams,   would be limited to about what a normal human eye could make   out at the normal reading distance of fourteen inches on a   surface 3-1/2 inches square, or to what one could discern on   an ordinary 8-1/2-by-11-inch sheet of paper at about three   feet. This means that one couldnot have a single-tube display   giving him an 8-1/2-by-11-inch frame to view that would have   as much on it as he might be used to seeing, say on the page   of a journal article."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0258" text="The costs of such displays are now   quite high--ranging from $20,000 to $60,000, depending upon   the symbol repertoire, symbol-structure display capacity, and   the quality of the symbol forms. One sbould expect these   prices to be lowered quite drastically as our technology   improves and the market for these displays increases."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0259" text="Much cheaper devices can &quot;draw&quot;   arbitrary symbol shapes and diagrams on paper, at a speed for   symbols that is perhaps a quarter of the rate that a   typewriter can produce them. Also, special typewriters (at   $3,000 to $4,000 apiece) can type out information on a sheet   of paper, as well as allow the human to send information to   the computer via the keyboard. But these two types of devices   do not allow fast and flexible rearrangement of the symbols   being displayed, which proves to be an important drawback in   our current view of future possibilities for augmentation."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0260" text="For communicating to the computer,   considerable freedom exists in arranging pushbuttons,   switches, and keysets for use by the human. The   &quot;interpretation&quot; or response to be made by the computer to the   actuation of any button, switch, or key (or to any combination   thereof) can be established in any manner that is describable   as a structure of primitive computer processes--which means   essentially any manner that is explicitly describable. The   limitation on the flexibility and power of any expllcit   &quot;shorthand&quot; system with which the human may wish to utilize   these input devices is the human's ability to learn and to use   them."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0261" text="There are also computer-input devices   that can sense enough data from handwriting to allow a   computer to recognize a limited number of handwritten   symbols--both as they are being written and afterwards. Means   for recognizing typescript are rather well developed and are   already being designed into some large documentation and   language translation systems. Also, a little progress has been   made toward developing equipment that can recognize a limited   spoken vocabulary. There is considerable economic pressure   toward developing useful and cheap devices of this type, and   we can expect relatively sophisticated capabilities to become   available within the next ten years.  Such equipment may play   an important role in the individual-augmentation systems of   the future (but our feeling is that a very powerful   augmentation system can be developed without them)."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0262" text="An important type of development for   our consideration of providing individual humans with   close-coupled computer services is what is known as time   sharing. Suppose a number of individual users connect to the   same computer The computer can be programmed to serve them   under any of a wide variety of rules. One such could be   similar to the way the telephone system gives you attention   and service when you ask for it--i.e., if too many other   demands are not being made for service at that time, you get   instant attention; otherwise, you wait until some service   capacity is free to attend to you."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0263" text="Our view of the interaction of human   and computer in the future augmented system sees a large   number of relatlvely simple processes (human scale of large   and simple) being performed by the computer for the   human--processes which often will require only a few   thousandths of a second of actual computer manipulation. Such   a fast and agile helper as a computer can run around between a   number of masters and seldom keep any of them waiting (at   least, not long enough that they would notice it or be   inconvenienced appreciably).  Occasionally, of course, much   larger periods of computer time will be needed by an   individual, and then the other users might get their periodic   milliseconds of service slipped in during these longer   processes."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0264" text="5. Other Related Thought and Work">
          <outline hs:nid="0265" text="When we began our search, we found a   great deal of literature which put forth thought and work of   general significance to our objective-- frankly, too   much. Without having a conceptual framework, we could not   efficiently filter out the significant kernels of fact and   concept from the huge mass which we initially collected as a   &quot;natural first step&quot; in our search. We feel rather unscholarly   not to buttress our conceptual framework with plentiful   reference to supporting work, but in truth it was too   difficult to do. Developing the conceptual structure   represented a sweeping synthesis job full of personal   constructs from smatterings picked up in many places.  Under   these conditions, giving reference to a backup source would   usually entail qualifying footnotes reflecting an unusual   interpretation or exonerating the other author from the   implications we derived from his work. We look forward to a   stronger, more comprehensive, and more scholarly presentation   evolving out of future work."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0266" text="However, we do want to acknowledge thoughts and work we have come across that bear most directly upon the possibilities of using a computer in real-time   working association with a human to improve his working   effectiveness.  These fall into two categories. The first category, which would include this report, presents speculations and possibilities but does not include reporting of significant experimental results. Of these, Bush (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-6&quot;&gt;6&lt;/a&gt;) is the earliest and one of the most   directly stimulating. Licklider (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-15&quot;&gt;15&lt;/a&gt;) provided the most general clear case for the modern computer, and coined the expression, &quot;man-computer symbiosis&quot; to refer to the close interaction   relationship between the man and computer in mutually beneficial cooperation. Ulam (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-16&quot;&gt;16&lt;/a&gt;)   has specifically recommended close man-computer interaction in a chapter entitled, &quot;synergesis,&quot; where he points out in considerable detail the types of mathematical work which could be aided. Good (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-17&quot;&gt;17&lt;/a&gt;) includes some conjecture about possibilities of intellectual aid to the human by close cooperation with a computer in a rather general way, and also presents a few interesting thoughts about a   network model for structuring the conceptual kernels of   information to facilitate a sort of self-organizing retrieval   system. Ramo has given a number of talks dealing with the   future possibilities of computers for &quot;extending man's   intellect,&quot; and wrote several articles (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-18&quot;&gt;18&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-19&quot;&gt;19&lt;/a&gt;) His   projections seem slanted more toward larger bodies of humans   interacting with computers, in less of an intimate personal sense than the above papers or than our initial goal. Fein (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-20&quot;&gt;20&lt;/a&gt;) in making a comprehensive   projection of the growth and dynamic inter-relatedness of   &quot;computer-related sciences,&quot; includes specific mention of the   enhancement of human intellect by cooperative activity of men,   mechanisms, and automata. He coined the term &quot;synnoetics&quot; as   applicable generally to the cooperative interaction of people,   mechanisms, plant or animal organisms, and automata into a   system whose mental power is greater than that of its   components, and presented a good picture of the integrated way   in which many currently separate disciplines should be   developed and taught in the future to do justice to their   mutual roles in the important metadiscipline defined as   &quot;synnoetics.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0267" text="In the second category, there have   been a few papers published recently describing actual work   that bears directly upon our topic. Licklider and Clark, (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-21&quot;&gt;21&lt;/a&gt;) and Culler and Huff, (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-22&quot;&gt;22&lt;/a&gt;) in the 1962 Spring Joint Computer   Conference, gave what are essentially progress reports of work   going on now in exactly this sort of thing--a human with a   computer backed display getting minute-by-minute help in   solving problems. Teager (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-23&quot;&gt;23&lt;/a&gt;, &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-24&quot;&gt;24&lt;/a&gt;) reports on the plans and current development of a large time-sharing system at MIT, which is planned to provide direct computer access for a number of outlying stations located in scientists' offices, giving each of these users a chance for real-time utilization of the computer."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0268" text="There are several efforts that we   have heard about, but for which there are either no   publications or for which none have been discovered by us.   Mr. Douglas Ross, of the Electronic Systems Laboratory at MIT   has, we learned by direct conversation, been thinking and   working on real-time man-machine interaction problems for some   years. We have recently learned that a graduate student at   MIT, Glenn Randa, (&lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-25&quot;&gt;25&lt;/a&gt;) has   developed the design of a remote display console under Ross   for his graduate thesis project. We understand that another   graduate student there, Ivan Sutherland, is currently using   the display-computer facility on the TX-2 computer at Lincoln   Lab to develop cooperative techniques for engineering-design   problems. And at RAND, we have learned by personal discussion   that Cliff Shaw, Tom Ellis, and Keith Uncapher have been   involved in implementing a multi-station time-sharing system   built around their JOHNNIAC computer.  Termed the JOHNNIAC   Open-Shop System (JOSS for short), it apparently is near   completion, and will use remote type writer stations."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0269" text="Undoubtedly, there are efforts of   others falling into either or both categories that have been   overlooked. Such oversight has not been intentional, and it is   hoped that these researchers will make their pertinent work   known to us."/>
        </outline>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="0270" text="B. HYPOTHETICAL DESCRIPTION OF COMPUTER-BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM">
        <outline hs:nid="0271" text="Let us consider some specific possibilities for redesigning the augmentation means for an intellectually oriented, problem-solving human. We choose to present those developments of language and methodology that can capitalize upon the symbol-manipulating and portraying capabilities of computer-based equipment. The picture of the possibilities to pursue will change and grow rapidly as research gets under way, but we need to provide what pictures we can--to give substance to the generalities developed in Section II, to try to impart our feeling of rich promise, and to introduce a possible research program (Section IV)."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0272" text="Although our generalizations (about augmentation means, capability hierarchies, and mental-, concept-, symbol-, process-, and physical structuring) might retain their validity in the future--for instance, our generalized prediction that new developments in concept, symbol, and process structuring will prove to be tremendously important--the specific concepts, symbol structures, and processes that evolve will most likely differ from what we know and use now. In fact, even if we in some way could know now what would emerge after say, ten years of research, it is likely that any but a general description would be difficult to express in today's terminology."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0273" text="1. Background">
          <outline hs:nid="0274" text="To try to give you (the reader) a   specific sort of feel for our thesis in spite of this   situation, we shall present the following picture of   computer-based augmentation possibilities by describing what   might happen if you were being given a personal   discussion-demonstration by a friendly fellow (named Joe) who   is a trained and experienced user of such an augmentation   system within an experimental research program which is   several years beyond our present stage. We assume that you   approach this demonstration-interview with a background   similar to what the previous portion of this report   provides--that is, you will have heard or read a set of   generalizations and a few rather primitive examples, but you   will not yet have been given much of a feel for how a   computer-based augmentation system can really help a   person."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0275" text="Joe understands this and explains   that he will do his best to give you the valid conceptual feel   that you want--trying to tread the narrow line between being   too detailed and losing your over-all view anc being too   general and not providing you with a solid feel for what goes   on. He suggests that you sit and watch him for a while as he   pursues some typical work, after which he will do some   explaining. You are not particularly flattered by this, since   you know that he is just going to be exercising new language   and methodology developments on his new artifacts--and after   all, the artifacts don't look a bit different from what you   expected--so why should he keep you sitting there as if you   were a complete stranger to this stuff? It will just be a   matter of &quot;having the computer do some of his   symbol-manipulating processes for him so that he can use more   powerful concepts and concept-manipulation techniques,&quot; as you   have so often been told."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0276" text="Joe has two display screens side by   side, but one of them he doesn't seem to use as much as the   other. And the screens are almost horizontal, more like the   surface of a drafting table than the near-vertical picture   displays you had somehow imagined. But you see the reason   easily, for he is working on the display surface as intently   as a draftsman works on his drawings, and it would be awkward   to reach out to a vertical surface for this kind of work. Some   of the time Joe is using both hands on the keys, obviously   feeding information into the computer at a great rate."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0277" text="Another slight surprise, though--you   see that each hand operates on a set of keys on its own side   of the display frames, so that the hands are almost two feet   apart. But it is plain that this arrangement allows him to   remain positioned over the frames in a rather natural   position, so that when he picks the light pen out of the air   (which is its rest position, thanks to a system of jointed   supporting arms and a controlled tension and rewind system for   the attached cord) his hand is still on the way from the   keyset to the display frame. When he is through with the pen   at the display frame, he lets go of it, the cord rewinds, and   the pen is again in position. There is thus a minimum of   effort, movement, and time involved in turning to work on the   frame. That is, he could easily shift back and forth from   using keyset to using light pen, with either hand (one pen is   positioned for each hand), without moving his head, turning,   or leaning."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0278" text="A good deal of Joe's time, though,   seems to be spent with one hand on a keyset and the other   using a light pen on the display surface. It is in this type   of working mode that the images on the display frames changed   most dynamically. You receive another real surprise as you   realize how much activity there is on the face of these   display tubes. You ask yourself why you weren't prepared for   this, and you are forced to admit that the generalizations you   had heard hadn't really sunk in--&quot;new methods for manipulating   symbols&quot; had been an oft-repeated term, but it just hadn't   included for you the images of the free and rapid way in which   Joe could make changes in the display, and of meaningful and   flexible &quot;shaping&quot; of ideas and work status which could take   place so rapidly."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0279" text="Then you realized that you couldn't   make any sense at all out of the specific things he was doing,   nor of the major part of what you saw on the displays. You   could recognize many words, but there were a good number that   were obviously special abbreviations of some sort. During the   times when a given image or portion of an image remained un   changed long enough for you to study it a bit, you rarely saw   anything that looked llke a sentence as you were used to   seeing one. You were beginning to gather that there were other   symbols mixed with the words that might be part of a sentence,   and that the different parts of what made a full-thought   statement (your feeling about what a sentence is) were not   just laid out end to end as you expected. But Joe suddenly   cleared the displays and turned to you with a grin that   signalled the end of the passive observation period, and also   that somehow told you that he knew very well that you now knew   that you had needed such a period to shake out some of your   limited images and to really realize that a &quot;capability   hierarchy&quot; was a rich and vital thing."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0280" text="&quot;I guess you noticed that I was using   unfamiliar notions, symbols, and processes to go about doing   things that were even more unfamiliar to you?&quot; You made a   non-committal nod--you saw no reason to admit to him that you   hadn't even been able to tell which of the things he had been   doing were to cooperate with which other things--and he   continued. &quot;To give you a feel for what goes on, I'm going to   start discussing and demonstrating some of the very basic   operations and notions I've been using. You've read the stuff   about process and process-capability hierarchies, I'm sure. I   know from past experience in explaining radical augmentation   systems to people that the new and powerful higher-level   capabilities that they are interested in--because basically   those are what we are all anxious to improve--can't really be   explained to them without first giving them some understanding   of the new and powerful capabilities upon which they are   built. This holds true right on down the line to the type of   low-level capability that is new and different to them all   right, but that they just wouldn't ordinarily see as being   'powerful.' And yet our systems wouldn't be anywhere near as   powerful without them, and a person's comprehension of the   system would be rather shallow if he didn't have some   understanding of these basic capabilities and of the   hierarchical structure built up from them to provide the   highest-level capabilities.&quot;"/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0281" text="2. Single-Frame Composition">
          <outline hs:nid="0282" text="&quot;For explanation purposes here, let's   say that the lowest level at which the computer system comes   into direct play in my capability hierarchy is in the task of   what I'll call 'single-frame composition.' We'll stick to   working with prose text in our examples--most people can grasp   easily enough what we are doing there without having to have   special backgrounds in mathematics or science as they would to   gain equal comprehension for some of the similar sorts of   things we do with diagrams and mathematical equations. This   low-level composition task is just what you normally do with a   pen or pencil or typewriter on a piece of paper-- that is,   assemble a bunch of symbols before your eyes in order to   portray something which you have in mind.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0283" text="You listened and watched as Joe   showed you some of the different ways in which the composition   of straightforward text was made easier for him in this   system. With either hand, Joe could &quot;type&quot; (the keysets didn't   look at all like typewriter keyboards) individual letters and   numbers, and if he had directed it to do so, the computer   would put each successive symbol next to its predecessor just   as a typewriter does--only here there was completely automatic   &quot;carriage return&quot; service. This didn't impress you very much,   since an automatic carriage-return feature was sort of a   trivial return on the investment behind all of this   equipment--but then you reflected that, as long as the   computer was there anyway, to help do all the flashy things   you had witnessed earlier, one might as well use it in all of   the little helpful ways he could."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0284" text="But there were other ways in which   help was derived for this composition task. He showed you how   he could call up the dictionary definition to any word he had   typed in, with but a few quick flicks on the keyset. Synonyms   or antonyms could just as easily be brought forth. This also   seemed sort of trivially obvious, and Joe seemed to know that   you would feel so. &quot;It turns out that this simple capability   makes it feasible to do some pretty rough tasks in the upper   levels of the capability hierarchy--where precise use of   special terms really pays off, where the human just couldn't   be that precise by depending upon his unaided memory for   definitions and 'standards,' and where using dictionary and   reference-book lookup in the normal fashion would be so   distracting and time-consuming that the task execution would   break down. We've tried taking this feature away in some of   these processes up there, and believe me, the result was a   mess."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0285" text="You could get some dim feeling for   what he meant, having watched him working for a while, but you   were nevertheless much relieved to find the next thing he   showed you to be more directly impressive. He showed you how   he could single out a group of words (called the &quot;object   symbol string,&quot; or simply &quot;object string&quot;) and define an   abbreviation term, composed of any string of symbols he might   choose, that became associated with the object string in   computer storage. At any later time (until he chose to discard   that particular abbreviation from his working voca bulary) the   typing of the abbreviation term would call forth automatically   the &quot;printing&quot; on the display of the entire object string. Joe   showed you another way in which this abbreviation feature   might work. He &quot;arranged&quot; for the computer to print the   abbreviation on the display, just the way he typed it in. At a   subsequent reading, if he had for gotten what the abbreviation   stood for, he could call for substitution of the full object   string to refresh his memory."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0286" text="Then he showed you how this sort of   facility had been extended, in a refined way, to provide a   rather powerful sort of shorthand. He could hit a great many   combinations of keys on his keyset--i.e., any one stroke of   his hand could depress a number of keys, which gave him over a   thousand unique single-stroke signals to the computer with   either hand. Some of these signals were used as abbreviations   for entire words. It seems that, for instance, the 150 most   commonly used words in a natural language made up about half   of any normal text in that language. Joe said that it was thus   quite feasible to learn and use the single-stroke   abbreviations for about half of the words he used, but beyond   that each added percent began to require him to have too many   abbreviations under his command. But he said that there were a   lot of word endings, letter pairs (diagrams), and letter   triplets (trigrams) that were so common as to make it pay to   abbreviate them to a single stroke. A whole word so   abbreviated saved typing all the letters as well as the spaces   at either side of the word, and a word-ending abbreviated by a   single stroke saved typing the letters and the end-of-word   space. He claimed that he could comfortably rattle off about   180 words a minute--faster than he could comfortably talk. You   believed him after he transcribed your talking for a minute or   so, and it gave you an eerie feeling to see the near   instantaneous appearance of your words and sentences in neat   printed form."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0287" text="Joe said that there were other   miscellaneous simple features, and some quite sophisticated   features to help the composition process. He made some brief   references to statistical predictions that the com puter could   make regarding what you were golng to type next, and that if   you got reasonably skillful you could &quot;steer through the   extrapolated prediction field&quot; as you entered your information   and often save energy and time. You gathered that he thought   you would saturate about there on this particular subject,   because he went on to the next."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0288" text="3. Single-Frame Manipulation">
          <outline hs:nid="0289" text="&quot;Even if I couldn't actually specify   new symbols here any faster than with a typewriter, the   extreme flexibility that this computer system provides for   making changes in what is presented on the display screen   would make me very much more effective in creating finished   text than I could ever be on a typewriter.&quot; With this   statement, Joe proceeded to show you what he meant. The frame   full of your transcribed speech was still showing, and it   represented the clumsy phrasing and illogical progression of   thought so typical of extemporaneous speech. Joe took the   light gun in his right hand, and with a deft flick of it,   coordinated with a stroke of his left hand on its keyset,   caused the silent and instantaneous deletion of a superfluous   word. The word disappeared from the frame, and the rest of the   text simultaneously readjusted to present the neat, no-gap,   full-line appearance it had had. "/>
          <outline hs:nid="0290" text="With but slightly more motion of his   light pen, he could similarly delete any string of words or   letters. He demonstrated this by cutting out what I thought to   be some relevant prose, and then he showed how the system   allowed for second thoughts about such human-directed   processes--those words were automatically saved for a brief   period in case he wanted to call them back. Leaving his light   pen pointed at the space where a deleted symbol string used to   be, Joe could reinstate it instantaneously with one stroke of   his left hand."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0291" text="Adding one more light-pen pointing to   what it took to delete an arbitrary string of symbols, Joe   could direct the computer to move that string from where it   was to insert it at a new point which his light pen   designated.  Again it would disappear instantaneously from   where it had been, but now the modified display would show the   old text to have been spread apart just enough at the   indicated point to hold this string. The text would all still   look as neat as if freshly retyped. With similar types of   keyset and light-pen operations, Joe could change paragraph   break points, transpose two arbitrary symbol strings (words,   sentences, paragraphs, etc., or fragments thereof), readjust   margins of arbitrary sections of text--essentially being able   to affect immediately any of the changes that a proofreader   might want to designate with his special marks, only here the   proofreader is always looking at clean text as if it had been   instantaneously retyped after each designation had been   made."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0292" text="Joe also demonstrated how he could   request that each instance of the use of a given term be   changed to a newly designated term, and this would again be   instantaneously accomplished. Also, he could arbitrarily set   the margins between which any section of text must appear, and   its line lengths and number of lines would automatically be   adjusted. He showed how this was useful in displaying parallel   or counter arguments-- although he said that actual use of   this feature was a bit more sophisticated--by squeezing each   into half width and putting them side by side (with a vertical   line suddenly separating them). One of the sections of text   was about a third longer than the other--but two quick strokes   with Joe's left hand caused the computer to adjust the display   automatically. The middle separator line was moved toward the   shorter piece of text, and the line lengths of the two   sections were adjusted so that they occupied the same length   along the dlsplay frame. Yes, you were beginning to get a feel   for what the expression &quot;flexible new methods for manipulating   symbol structures&quot; might really imply, at least on this   basic-capability level."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0293" text="4. Structuring an Argument">
          <outline hs:nid="0294" text="&quot;If we want to go on to a   higher-level capability to give you a feeling for how our   rebuilt capability hierarchy works, it will speed us along to   look at how we might organize these more primitive   capabilities which I have demonstrated into some new and   better ways to set up what we can call an 'argument.' This   refers loosely to any set of statements (we'll call them   'product statements') that represents the product of a period   of work toward a given objective. Confused? Well, take the   simple case where an argument leads to a single product   statement. For instance, you come to a particular point in   your work where you have to decide what to do for the next   step. You go through some reasoning process--usually involving   statements--and come up with a statement specifying that next   step. That final statement is the product statement, and it   represents the product of the argument or reasoning process   which led to it."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0295" text="&quot;You usually think of an argument as   a serial sequence of steps of reason, beginning with known   facts, assumptions, etc., and progressing toward a   conclusion. Well, we do have to think through these steps   serially, and we usually do list the steps serially when we   write them out because that is pretty much the way our papers   and books have to present them--they are pretty limiting in   the symbol structuring they enable us to use. Have you even   seen a 'scrambled-text' programmed instruction book? That is   an interesting example of a deviation from straight serial   presentation of steps."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0296" text="&quot;Conceptually speaking, however, an   argument is not a serial affair.  It is sequential, I grant   you, because some statements have to follow others, but this   doesn't imply that its nature is necessarily serial. We   usually string Statement B after Statement A, with Statements   C, D, E, F, and so on following in that order--this is a   serial structuring of our symbols.  Perhaps each statement   logically followed from all those which preceded it on the   serial list, and if so, then the conceptual structuring would   also be serial in nature, and it would be nicely matched for   us by the symbol structuring."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0297" text="&quot;But a more typical case might find A   to be an independent statement, B dependent upon A, C and D   independent, E depending upon D and B, E dependent upon C, and   F dependent upon A, D, and E. See, sequential but not serial?   A conceptual network but not a conceptual chain. The old paper   and pencil methods of manipulating symbols just weren't very   adaptable to making and using symbol structures to match the   ways we make and use conceptual structures.  With the new   symbol-manipulating methods here, we have terrific flexibility   for matching the two, and boy, it really pays off in the way   you can tie into your work."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0298" text="This makes you recall dimly the   generalizations you had heard previously about process   structuring limiting symbol structuring, symbol structuring   limiting concept structuring, and concept structuring limiting   mental structuring.  You nod cautiously, in hopes that he will   proceed in some way that will tie this kind of talk to   something from which you can get the &quot;feel&quot; of what it is all   about. As it turns out, that is just what he intends to   do."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0299" text="&quot;Let's actually work some   examples. You help me.&quot;  And you become involved in a truly   fascinating game. Joe tells you that you are to develop an   argument leading to statements summarizing the augmentation   means so far revealed to you for doing the kind of   straight-text work usually done with a pencil and eraser on a   single sheet of paper. You unconsciously look for a scratch   pad before you realize that he is telling you that you are   going to do this the &quot;augmented way&quot; by using him and his   system--with artful coaching from him. Under a bit of urging   from him, you begin self-consciously to mumble some inane   statements about what you have seen, what they imply, what   your doubts and reservations are, etc.  He mercilessly ignores   your obvious discomfort and gives you no cue to stop, until he   drops his hands to his lap after he has filled five frames   with these statements (the surplus filled frames disappeared   to somewhere--you assume Joe knows where they went and how to   get them back)."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0300" text="&quot;You notice how you wandered down   different short paths, and criss-crossed yourself a few   times?&quot; You nod--depressed, no defense. But he isn't needling   you. &quot;Very natural development, just the way we humans always   seem to start out on a task for which we aren't all primed   with knowledge, method, experience, and confidence--which is   to include essentially every problem of any consequence to   us. So let's see how we can accommodate the human's way of   developing his comprehension and his final problem   solution."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0301" text="&quot;Perhaps I should have stopped   sooner--I &lt;i&gt;am&lt;/i&gt; supposed to be coaching you instead of   teasing you--but I had a reason. You haven't been making use   of the simple symbol-manipulation means that I showed   you--other than the shorthand for getting the stuff on the   screens. You started out pretty much the way you might with   your typewriter or pencil. I'll show you how you could have   been doing otherwise, but I want you to notice first how hard   it is for a person to realize how really unques tioning he is   about the way he does things. Somehow we implicitly view most   all of our methods as just sort of 'the way things are done,   that's all.' You knew that some exotic techniques were going   to be applied, and you'll have to admit that you were   passively waiting for them to be handed to you.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0302" text="With a non-committal nod, you suggest   getting on with it. Joe begins, &quot;You're probably waiting for   something impressive. What I'm trying to prime you for,   though, is the realization that the impressive new &lt;i&gt;tricks&lt;/i&gt; all are based upon lots of changes in the little things   you do. This computerized system is used over and over and   over again to help me do &lt;i&gt;little things&lt;/i&gt;--where my methods and   ways of handling little things are changed until, lo, they've added up and suddenly I can do &lt;i&gt;impressive&lt;/i&gt; new things.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0303" text="You don't know. He's a nice enough   guy, but he sure gets preachy. But the good side of your   character shows through, and you realize that everything so   far &lt;i&gt;has&lt;/i&gt; been about little things--this is probably an   important point. You'll stick with him. Okay, so what could   you have been doing to use the simple tricks he had shown you   in a useful way? Joe picks up the light pen, poises his other   hand over the keyset, and looks at you. You didn't need the   hint, but thanks anyway, and let's start rearranging and   cleaning up the work space instead of just dumping more raw   material on it."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0304" text="With closer coaching now from Joe,   you start through the list of statements you've made and begin   to edit, re-word, compile, and delete. It's fun--&quot;put that   sentence back up here between these two&quot;--and blink, it's   done.  &quot;Group these four statements, indented two spaces,   under the heading &quot;shorthand,&quot; and blinko, it's done. &quot;Insert   what I say next there, after that sentence.&quot; You dictate a   sentence to extend a thought that is developing, and Joe   effortlessly converts it into an inserted new sentence. Your   ideas begin to take shape, and you can continually re-work the   existing set of statements to keep representing the state of   your &quot;concept structure.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0305" text="You are quite elated by this freedom   to juggle the record of your thoughts, and by the way this   freedom allows you to &lt;i&gt;work&lt;/i&gt; them into shape.  You   reflected that this flexible cut-and-try process really did   appear to match the way you seemed to develop your   thoughts. Golly, you could be writing math expressions, ad   copy, or a poem, with the same type of benefit. You were ready   to tell Joe that now you saw what he had been trying to tell   you about matching symbol structuring to concept   structuring--when he moved on to show you a succession of   other tech niques that made you realize you hadn't yet gotten   the full significance of his pitch."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0306" text="So far the structure that you have   built with your symbols looks just like what you might build   with pencil-and-paper techniques-- only here the building is   so much easier when you can trim, extend, insert, and   rearrange so freely and rapidly. But the same computer here   that gives us these freedoms with so trivial an application of   its power, can just as easily give us other simple   capabilities which we can apply to the development and use of   different &lt;i&gt;types&lt;/i&gt; of structure from what we used to   use. But let me unfold these little computer tricks as we come   to them."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0307" text="&quot;When you look at a given statement   in the middle of your argument structure, there are a number   of things you want to know. Let's simplify the sltuation by   saying that you might ask three questions, 'What's this?',   'How come?', and 'So what?' Let's take these questions one at   a time and see how some changes in structuring might help a   per son answer them better."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0308" text="You look at a statement and you want   to understand its meaning. You are used to seeing a statement   portrayed in just the manner you might hear it--as a serial   succession of words. But, just as with the statements within   an argument, the conceptual relationship among the words of a   sentence is not generally serial, and we can benefit in   matching better to the conceptual structure if we can   conveniently work with cer tain non-serial symbol-structuring   forms within sentences."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0309" text="&quot;Most of the structuring forms I'll   show you stem from the simple capability of being able to   establish arbitrary linkages between different substructures,   and of directing the computer subsequently to display a set of   linked substructures with any relative positioning we might   designate among the different substructures. You can designate   as many different kinds of links as you wish, so that you can   specify different display or manipulative treatment for the   different types.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0310" text="Joe picked out one of your sentences,   and pushed the rest of the text a few lines up and down from   it to isolate it. He then showed you how he could make a few   strokes on the keyset to designate the type of link he wanted   established, and pick the two symbol structures that were to   be linked by means of the light pen. He said that most links   possessed a direction, i.e., they were like an arrow pointing   from one substructure to another, so that in setting up a link   he must specify the two substructures in a given order."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0311" text="He went to work for a moment, rapidly   setting up links within your sentence.  Then he showed you how   you could get some help in looking at a statement and   understanding it. &quot;Here is one standard portrayal, for which I   have established a computer process to do the structuring   automatically on the basis of the interword links.&quot; A few   strokes on the keyset and suddenly the sentence fell to   pieces--different parts of it being positioned here and there,   with some lines connecting them. &quot;Remember diagramming   sentences when you were studying grammar? Some good methods,   plus a bit of practice, and you'd be surprised how much a   diagrammatic breakdown can help you to scan a complex   statement and untangle it quickly."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0312" text="&quot;We have developed quite a few more   little schemes to help at the statement level. I don't want to   tangle you up with too much detail, though.  You can see,   probably, that quick dictionary-lookup helps.&quot; He aimed at a   term with the light pen and hit a few strokes on the keyset,   and the old text jumped farther out of the way and the   definition appeared above the diagram, with the defined term   brighter than the rest of the diagram.  And he showed you also   how you could link secondary phrases (or sentences) to parts   of the statement for more detailed description. These   secondary substructures wouldn't appear when you normally   viewed the statement, but could be brought in by simple   request if you wanted closer study."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0313" text="&quot;It proves to be terrifically useful   to be able to work easily with statements that represent more   sophisticated and complex concepts.  Sort of like being able   to use structural members that are lighter and stronger--it   gives you new freedom in building structures. But let's move   on--we'll come back to this area later, if we have time."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0314" text="&quot;When you look at a statement and   ask, 'How come?', you are used to scanning back over a serial   array of previously made statements in search of an   understanding of the basis upon which this statement was   made. But some of these previous statements are much more   significant than others to this search for understanding. Let   us use what we call 'antecedent links' to point to these, and   I'll give you a basic idea of how we structure an argument so   that we can quickly track down the essential basis upon which   a given statement rests.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0315" text="You helped him pick out the primary   antecedents of the statement you had been studying, and he   established links to them. These statements were scattered   back through the serial list of statements that you had   assembled, and Joe showed you how you could either brighten or   underline them to make them stand out to your eye--just by   requesting the computer to do this for all direct antecedents   of the designated statement. He told you, though, that you   soon get so you aren't very much interested in seeing the   serial listing of all of the statements, and he made another   request of the computer (via the keyset) that eliminated all   the prior statements, except the direct antecedents, from the   screen. The subject statement went to the bottom of the frame,   and the antecedent statements were neatly listed above it."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0316" text="Joe then had you designate an order   of &quot;importance to comprehension&quot; among these statements, and   he rearranged them accordingly as fast as you could choose   them. (This choosing was remarkably helped by having only the   remainder statements to study for each new choice--another   little contribution to effectiveness, you thought.) He   mentioned that you could designate orderings under several   different criteria, and later have the display show whichever   ordering you wished. This, he implied, could be used very   effectively when you were building or studying an argument   structure in which from time to time you wanted to strengthen   your comprehension relative to different aspects of the   situation."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0317" text="&quot;Each primary antecedent can   similarly be linked to its primary antecedents, and so on,   until you arrive at the statements representing the premises,   the accepted facts, and the objectives upon which this   argument had been established. When we had established the   antecedent links for all the statements in the argument, the   question 'So what?' that you might ask when looking at a given   statement would be answered by looking for the statements for   which the given statement was an antecedent. We already have   links to these consequents--just turn around the arrows on the   antecedent links and we have consequent links. So we can   easily call forth an uncluttered display of consequent   statements to help us see why we needed this given statement   in the argument."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0318" text="&quot;To help us get better comprehension   of the structure of an argument, we can also call forth a   schematic or graphical display. Once the antecedent-consequent   links have been established, the computer can automatically   construct such a display for us.&quot; So, Joe spent a few minutes   (with your help) establishing a reasonable set of links among   the statements you had originally listed.  Then another   keyed-in request to the computer, and almost instantaneously   there appeared a network of lines and dots that looked   something like a tree--except that sometimes branches would   fuse together. &quot;Each node or dot represents one of the   statements of your argument, and the lines are   antecedent-consequent links. The antecedents of one statement   always lie above that statement-- or rather, their nodes lie   above its node. When you get used to using a network   representation like this, it really becomes a great help in   getting the feel for the way all the different ideas and   reasoning fit together-- that is, for the conceptual   structuring.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0319" text="Joe demonstrated some ways in which   you could make use of the diagram to study the argument   structure. Point to any node, give a couple of strokes on the   keyset, and the corresponding statement would appear on the   other screen--and that node would become brighter. Call the   antecedents forth on the second screen, and select one of   special interest--deleting the others. Follow back down the   antecedent trail a little further, using one screen to look at   the detail at any time, and the other to show you the larger   view, with automatic node-brightening indication of where   these detailed items fit in the larger view."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0320" text="&quot;For a little embellishment here, and   to show off another little capability in my repertoire, let me   label the nodes so that you can develop more association   between the nodes and the statements in the argument.  I can   do this several ways. For one thing, I can tell the computer   to number the statements in the order in which you originally   had them listed, and have the labelling done automatically.&quot;    This took him a total of five strokes on the keyset, and   suddenly each node was made into a circle with a number in   it. The statements that were on the second screen now each had   its respective serial number sitting next to it in the left   margin.  &quot;This helps you remember what the different nodes on   the network display contain. We have also evolved some handy   techniques for constructing abbreviation labels that help your   memory quite a bit."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0321" text="&quot;Also, we can display extra   fine-structure and labelling detail within the network in the   specific local area we happen to be concentrating upon. This   finer detail is washed out as we move to another spot with our   close attention, and the coarser remaining structure is   compressed, so that there is room for our new spot to be blown   up. It is a lot like using zones of variable magnification as   you scan the structure--higher magnification where you are   inspecting detail, lower magnification in the surrounding   field so that your feel for the whole structure and where you   are in it can stay with you.&quot;"/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0322" text="5. General Symbol Structuring">
          <outline hs:nid="0323" text="&quot;If you are tangling with a problem   of any size--whether it involves you for half an hour or two   years--the entire collection of statements, sketches,   computations, literature sources, and source extracts that is   associated with your work would in our minds constitute a   single symbol structure. There may be many levels of   substructuring between the level of individual symbols and   that represented by the entire collection. You and I have been   worxing with some of the lower-ordered substructures--the   individual statements and the multistatement argu ments--and   have skimmed through some of the ways to build and manipulate   them. The results of small arguments are usually integrated in   a higher level network of argument or concept development, and   these into still higher-level networks, and so on. But at any   such level, the manner in which the interrelationship between   the kernels of argument can be tagged, portrayed, studied and   manipulated is much the same as those which we have just been   through."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0324" text="&quot;Substructures that might represent   mathematical or formal-logic arguments may be linked right in   with substructures composed of the more informal   statements. Substructures that represent graphs, curves,   engineering drawings, and other graphical forms can likewise   be integrated. One can also append special substructures, of   any size, to particular other substructures.  A frequent use   of this is to append descriptive material--something like   footnotes, only much more flexible. Or, special messages can   be hung on that offer ideas such as simplifying an argument or   circumventing a blocked path--to be uncovered and considered   at some later date. These different appended substructures can   remain invisible to the worker until such time as he wants to   flush them into view. He can ask for the cue symbols that   indicate their presence (identifying where they are linked and   what their respective types are) to be shown on the network   display any time he wishes, and then call up whichever of them   he wishes If he is interested in only one type of appended   substructure, he can request that only the cues associated   with that type be displayed."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0325" text="&quot;You should also realize that a   substructure doesn't have to be a hunk of data sitting neatly   distinct within the normal form of the larger structure. One   can choose from a symbol structure (or substructure,   generally) any arbitrary collection of its substructures,   designate any arbitrary structuring among these and any new   substructures he wants to add, and thus define a new   substructure which the computer can untangle from the larger   structure and present to him at any time. The associative   trails that Bush suggested represent a primitive example of   this. A good deal of this type of activity is involved during   the early, shifting development of some phase of work, as you   saw when you were collecting tentative argument chains. But   here again, we find ever more delightful ways to make use of   the straightforward-seeming capabilities in developing new   higher-level capabilities--which, of course, seem sort of   straight forward by then, too."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0326" text="&quot;I found, when I learned to work with   the structures and manipulation processes such as we have   outlined, that I got rather impatient if I had to go back to   dealing with the serial-statement structuring in books and   journals, or other ordinary means of communicating with other   workers.  It is rather like having to project   three-dimensional images onto two-dimensional frames and to   work with them there instead of in their natural   form. Actually, it is much closer to the truth to say that it   is like trying to project n-dimensional forms (the concept   structures, which we have seen can be related with many many   nonintersecting links) onto a one-dimensional form (the serial   string of symbols), where the human memory and visualization   has to hold and picture the links and relationships. I guess   that's a natural feeling, though. One gets impatlent any tlme   he is forced into a restrlcted or primitive mode of   operation--except perhaps for recreatlonal purposes."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0327" text="&quot;I'm sure that you've had the   experience of working over a journal article to get   comprehension and perhaps some special-purpose conclusions   that you can integrate into your own work. Well, when you ever   get handy at roaming over the type of symbol structure which   we have been showing here, and you turn for this purpose to   another person's work that is structured in this way, you will   find a terrific difference there in the ease of gaining   comprehension as to what he has done and why he has done it,   and of isolating what you want to use and making sure of the   conditions under which you can use it. This is true even if   you find his structure left in the condition in which he has   been working on it--that is, with no special provisions for   helping an outsider find his way around. But we have learned   quite a few simple tricks for leaving appended road signs,   supplementary information, questions, and auxiliary links on   our working structures--in such a manner that they never get   in our way as we work--so that the visitor to our structure   can gain his comprehension and isolate what he wants in   marvelously short order. Some of these techniques are quite   closely related to those used in automated-instruction   programming--perhaps you know about 'teaching machines?'"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0328" text="&quot;What we found ourselves doing, when   having to do any extensive digesting of journal articles, was   to type large batches of the text verbatim into computer   store. It is so nice to be able to tear it apart, establish   our own definitions and substitute, restructure, append notes,   and so forth, in pursuit of comprehension, that it was   generally well worth the trouble.  The keyset shorthand made   this reasonably practical. But the project now has an optical   character reader that will convert our external references   into machine code for us. The references are available for   study in original serial form on our screens, but any   structuring and tagging done by a previous reader, or   ourselves, can also be utilized."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0329" text="&quot;A number of us here are using the   augmented systems for our project research, and we find that   after a few passes through a reference, we very rarely go back   to it in its original form. It sits in the archives like an   orange rind, with most of the real juice squeezed out. The   contributions from these references form sturdy members of our   structure, and are duly tagged as to source so that   acknowledgment is always implicitly noted.  The analysis and   digestion that any of us makes on such a reference is fully   available to the others. It is rather amazing how much   superfluous verbiage is contained in those papers merely to   try to make up for the pitifully sparse possibilities   available for symbol structuring in printed text.&quot;"/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0330" text="6. Process Structuring">
          <outline hs:nid="0331" text="There was a slight pause while Joe   apparently was reflecting upon something.  He started to   speak, thought differently of it, and turned to flash   something on a screen. You looked quickly, anticipating that   now you would comprehend.  Well, more of the display looked   meaningful to you than when you had first watched him going   about his work, but you realized that you were still a bit   uneducated. I've developed a sequence for presenting the   different basic features of our augmentation system that seems   to work pretty well, and I just wanted to be sure I was still   following it reasonably closely.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0332" text="He noticed you wrinkle your face as   you looked at the display. &quot;It's time to shift the topic a   bit, and some of the things on the screen that are probably   puzzling you can make a starting point for a new discussion   phase. See, when I outlined a delivery for giving a feel for   these techniques to the uninitiated, I could have sketched out   the subject matter in a skeletal argument structure. From what   we've been through so far, you might expect it to be like   that. What I did, though, was to treat the matter as a process   that I was going to execute the process of giving you a   lecture demonstration.  It is a rather trivial exercise of the   techniques we have for developing and manipulating processes,   but anyway that's the form I chose for making the notes."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0333" text="&quot;A process is something that is   designed, built, and used--as is any tool. In the general   sense in which we consider processes to be a part of our   augmentatlon system, it is absolutely necessary that there be   effective capability for designing and building processes as   well as for using them.  For one thing, the laying out of   objectives and a method of approach for a problem represent a   form of process design and building, to our way of looking at   it. And an independent problem solver certainly has to have   this capability. Indeed, we find that designing and   coordinating one's sequence of steps, in high levels or in low   levels of such &lt;i&gt;process structuring&lt;/i&gt;, is an extremely   important part of the total activity."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0334" text="&quot;One of our research guys in the   early phases of our augmentation development was considered   (then) to be a bug on this topic. He maintained that about ten   percent of the little steps we took all day accounted for   ninety percent of the progress toward the goals we claimed to   pursue--that is, that ninety percent of our actions and   thoughts were coupled to our net progress in only a very   feeble way. Well, we can't analyze the old ways of doing   things very accurately to check his estimated figures, but we   certainly have come to be in general sympathy with his   stand. We have developed quite a few concepts and methods for   using the computer system to help us plan and supervise   sophisticated courses of action, to monitor and evaluate what   we do, and to use this information as direct feedback for   modifying our planning techniques in the future."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0335" text="&quot;There are, of course, the explicit   computer processes which we use, and which our philosophy   requires the augmented man to be able to design and build for   himself. A number of people, outside our research group here,   maintain stoutly that a practical augmentation system should   not require the human to have to do any computer   programming--they feel that this is too specialized a   capability to burden people with. Well, what that means in our   eyes, if translated to a home workshop, would be like saying   that you can't require the operating human to know how to   adjust his tools, or set up jigs, or change drill sizes, and   the like. You can see there that these skllls are easy to   learn in the context of what the human has to learn anyway   about using the tools, and that they provide for much greater   flexibility in finding convenient ways to use the tools to   help shape materials."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0336" text="&quot;It won't take too much time to give you a feel for the helpful methods we have for working on   computer-process structures -- or programs -- because there is   quite a bit of similarity in concept to what you have seen in   the symbol-structuring techniques. No matter what &lt;i&gt;language&lt;/i&gt; you use -- whether machine language, list language, or   ALGOL, for instance--you build up the required process   structure by organizing statements in that language. Each   statement specifies a given process to your computer. Well,   you have already seen how you can get help in developing   precise and powerful statements, or in gaining quick   comprehension of state ments, by charting or diagramming them and using special links between the different parts.  &quot;Look   here.'&quot; And he went after what he said was a typical process   structure, to give you an example of what he was talking   about. In several brief, successive frame displays, before he   got to the one he wanted, you got glimpses of network   schematics that reminded you of those used in symbol   structuring. But, what he finally had on the display frame was   quite different from the argument statements you had seen."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0337" text="&quot;In explaining symbol-structuring to   you, I used the likely questions, 'What's this?' 'How come?'    and 'So what?' to point out the usefulness of some of our   structuring methods. Here, in process structuring,   corresponding questions about a statement might be: 'What does   it say to do?' 'What effect will that have?' and 'Why do we   want that done?' Let's take a quick look at some of the ways   you can get help in answering them."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0338" text="&quot;The language used to compose these   process-description stateme for the computer is considerably   more compact and precise than is a natural language, such as   English, and there is correspondingly less advantage to be   gained by appending special links and tags for giving us   humans a better grasp of their meaning. However, as you see in   this left-hand section of the statement portrayal, geometrical   grouping, linking, and positioning of the statement components   are used in the blown-up statement display.  But this   portrayal doesn't stem from special appended information, it   can be laid out like this automatically by the computer, just   from the cues it gets from the necessary symbol components of   the statement. The different significant relationships are   more perceptible to a human in this way of laying it out, and   an experienced human thus gets quite a bit of help in   answering the first question: 'What does it say to do?'"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0339" text="For the second question, relative to   what effect the specified action will have, some of these   symbols to the right give you a quick story about the very   detailed and immediate effect on the state of the symbol   structure which this process structure is manipulating. Other   symbols here provide keys which a light-pen selection can   activate to bring to you displays of that symbol structure,   usually a choice of several relevant views at different levels   of the structure. Then I can use the keyset to ask for the   preceding statement, if I'm a little puzzled about the   detailed manipulation--or, I can request a specific   higher-level view of the process structure by light-pen   selection on one of these remaining symbols here."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0340" text="So saying, Joe selected one of these   symbols with his pen, and a new and different display popped   into view. &quot;This is the next level up in the process   structure. It consists of lists of compactly abbreviated   statements, and some condensed notes about their effects. If   we want, we can blow up one at a time as we study over the   list. In this context, one can get some answer to the larger   picture of what effect will a given statement have, and also   some answer to the question about why we want a given effect   produced. But this is a sort of a holdover from old pro   gramming habits, and most of us nowadays are making   considerably more use of the schematic techniques that evolved   out of the program flow-charting techniques and out of our   symbol-structuring techniques."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0341" text="&quot;I know that you have less prevlous   familiarity with the nature of programs than you do wlth the   nature of arguments, so I'll just give you a few quick views   of what these process-structure schematic portrayals look   like, and not try to explain them in any detail. He flashed a   few on the screen, and indicated how some of the different   features could give the human a quick appreclation of how   different component processes were cooperating to produce a   more sophisticated process. You could appreciate some of the   tricks of linking in explanatory and descriptive substructure   and the general means of using all the different   symbol-structuring tricks for representing to the human the   considerations, critical features, and lnterdependencies   involved in the process structure."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0342" text="&quot;Most of this portrayal technique   actually represents special structuring of what we previously   defined in a loose way as arguments. The human who wants to   approach an established process structure in order to modify   it, needs to gain comprehension of the relevant features both   of the functioning and of the design of the structure. You saw   how this could be facilitated by our symbol-structuring   techniques. And if he is building a new process structure or   changing an existing one, he needs to structure the argument   or reasoning behind the design. We have developed a number of   special symbol-structuring techniques that allow us to match   especially well to the concepts involved in designing   processes."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0343" text="&quot;But there is a very significant   feature involved in this particular type of process   structuring that I should tell you about. It is based upon the   fact that the process-description language for the computer is   formal and precise. Because of this fact, we can establish   explicit rules for treating statements in this language, and   for treating symbol structures composed of these statements,   such that computer pro cesses based upon these rules can be   said to extract meaning from these statements and to do   operations based upon this meaning. The result is that the   computer is able to find answers to a much wider range of   questions about a specified process structure than it could if   only the structural characteristics were discernible to   it."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0344" text="&quot;In our studying and designing   process structures, we have found many ways to capitalize upon   this more sophisticated question-answering capability now   possessed by the computer. We are learning, for instance, how   to get the computer to decide whether or not some types of   design specificatlons are met, and if not, where the   limitation exists. Or, perhaps we approach an already designed   process structure which we think we can modify, or from which   we can extract some useful sub-process that we contemplate   incorporating into another process we are designing. We are   getting terrific help in this type of instance, since we can   now ask the computer direct questions about types of   capability and limitation in this structure. The computer can   even lead us directly to the particular design features from   which these capabilities or limitations stem, and it is simple   then to examine the descriptive and explanatory arguments   linked thereto in order to see why these features were   designed into the structure."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0345" text="&quot;But I don't want to spend a   disproportionate amount of time on the computer processes. The   augmented man is engaged more often in structuring what we   call composite processes than he is in structuring computer   processes.  For instance, planning a research project, or a   day's work, are examples of structuring composite processes. A   composite process, remember, is organized from both human   processes and computer processes--which includes, of course,   the possible inclusion of lower-order composite processes. The   structuring here differs from that of a computer process   mainly in the sophistication of the sub-processes which can be &lt;i&gt;specified&lt;/i&gt; for the human to do. Some of these specifications have to be given in a language which matches the human's rich working framework of concepts--and we have been demonstrating here with English for that purpose--but quite a few   human-executed processes can be specified in the   high-level computer-processing language even though we don't   know how to &lt;i&gt;describe&lt;/i&gt; them in that language.  This means   that there few composite-process structures about which the   computer can answer very useful questions for us."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0346" text="&quot;But to be more specific--we find   that setting up objectives, deslgning a method of approach,   and then implementing that method are of course our   fundamental operating sequence--done over and over again in   the many levels of our activity. We mentioned above what the   characteristic structural difference was between computer   processes and composite processes. But perhaps more important   to us is the difference in the way we work with   composite-process structures. Here is a crude but succinct way   to put this.  With the human contributing to a process, we   find more and more as the process becomes complex that the   value of the human's contribution depends upon how much   freedom he is given to be disorderly in his course of action.   For instance, we provide him as much help as possible in   making a plan of action. Then we give him as much help as we   can in carrying it out.  But we also have to allow him to   change his mind at almost any point, and to want to modify his   plans. So, we provide augmentation help to him for keeping   track of his plans where he is in them, what has been   happening in carrying them out to date--and for evaluating   possibilities that might occur to him for changing the   plans. In fact, we are even learning how the computer can be   made to watch for some kinds of plan-change possibilities, and   to point them out to the human when they arise."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0347" text="&quot;Here's a simple example of this sort   of help for the human. Last winter, we designed a computer   process that can automatically monitor the occurrence of   specified types of computer usage over a specified period of   time, and which, from the resulting data, can deduce a   surprising amount of information regarding how the human made   use of that time. This was quite helpful to us for evaluating   our ways of doing things. Then we added more features to the   program, in which the computer occasionally interrupts the   human's activity and displays some questions to be   answered. From these answers, together with its normal   monitoring data, the program can provide evaluative data   regarding the relative success of his different work methods.   Our augmentation researchers became intrigued by this angle   and bore down a little on it. They came up with a package   process which gives the human many different types of feedback   about his progress and way of doing things.  Now, as part of   my regular practice, I spend about five minutes out of each   hour exercising with this package. This almost always reveals   things to me that change at least the slant of my approach   during the next hour, and often stimulates a relatlvely   significant change in my short-range plans"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0348" text="&quot;You appreciate, of course, that I   accomplish many more meaningful steps in an hour now than I   used to, or than would be your norm now. This once-an-hour   review for me now might compare with a once-a-day review for   you, as far as the distance travelled between reviews is   concerned."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0349" text="&quot;Our way of structuring the statement   of our objectives, the arguments which lead to the design of   our plans, and the working statements of our plans, has been   influenced by this review process. We found special types of   tags and descriptive codes which we could append to these   respective planning structures as we developed them which   later facilitated our man-computer cooperative review of   them. Also, our methods of developing these structures have   evolved to facilitate their later modification. For instance,   every basic consideration upon which a given planning   statement is based is linked to that statement as a matter of   standard argument structuring. But we have taken to linking   special tagging codes into these argument structures involving   our planning, to identify for the computer some of the   different types of dependency relationships in the antecedent   linkages. Later, if we consider changing the plan, these   special tags often enable us to make use of some special   computer processes that automatically isolate the   considerations relevant to a particular type of change we have   in mind."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0350" text="&quot;Maybe an example will help   here. There is a plan I am currently using for the way I go   about entering miscellaneous scraps of infcrmation lnto my   total symbol structure. It is designed so that there will be a   good chance for these scraps later to be usefully   integrated. It turns out that this plan is closely coupled in   its design argument to the general plan for reviewing process   structures--and symbol-structures, too, for that   matter. Recently, I got an idea as to how I might add a little   feature to that process that specially suited my particular   way of wanting to deal with miscellaneous thoughts that I   get. By various means, I very quickly learned that this would   be easy to do if I could but reverse the order ln whlch I   execute the sub-process Steps A and B, when I enter a piece of   lnformation. I had to find out if I could safely reverse their   order without getting into trouble someplace in my system."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0351" text="&quot;This I could do relatively rapidly,   by your standards, by snooping down the antecedent trails,   looking for statements relevant to this timing question. There   is, in fact, a semi-automatic processes available to me for   speeding just such searches. The computer keeps track of where   I have looked, where I've marked things as yes, or no, or   possible, and does the bookkeeping and calculating necessary   to guide me through an optimum search strategy. But the   special tagging we do when we make a process structure lets   this search be fully automatic when certain kinds of   relationships are involved--and relative timing happens to be   one of these relationships."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0352" text="&quot;So I phrased a question which   essentially asked for considerations relevant to the order in   which these two steps were executed, and turned the computer   loose. It took about three seconds for the results to be   forthcoming--you haven't yet seen me request a task that took   a noticeable period of machine time, have you? But anyway, the   computer discovered a relevance trail that ended up showing   that reversing the order of Steps A and B during the   information-scrap entry process would cripple a certain   feature in the planning-review process, where miscellaneous   thoughts and possibilities are gleaned from this store to be   considered relative to the planning."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0353" text="&quot;But let's try to back away from   details for a bit, now, and see if we can get a feeling for   the significance of the things we've been talking   about. Comparison with other working domains would be helpful,   perhaps.  If you were an inventor of useful mechanisms, you   would like to have a wide range of materials-processing and   shaping techniques available to you. This would give you more   freedom and more interesting possibilities in the way you   worked and designed. But many of these techniques are very   specialized; they require special equipment, special skills to   execute the processing and shaping, and special knowledge   about applicability and possibillties for the techniques."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0354" text="&quot;Suppose you were told that you could   subscribe to a community- owned installation of special   equipment--containing all sorts of wonderful instruments tools   and machines for measuring and processing with such as   chemical, optical, mechanical, electronic, pneumatic, vacuum,   metallurgy, and human factors. But this wasn't all that was   included in the subscription.  There would be a specialist   assigned to you, instantly available for consultation and help   whenever you requested it. He wouldn't have high-level   theoretical trainlng. His specialty would be familiarity with   the special manuals compiled from what the theoreticians,   equipment builders, and technicians know, and being able to   pinpoint relevant data and apply complex rules and   specifications."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0355" text="&quot;A lot of questions you might ask he   couldn't answer directly, but in such a case he could often   lead you quickly to some relevant pages in his books. You   discovered that usually a succession of well-chosen questions   of the sort he &lt;i&gt;could&lt;/i&gt; answer, interspersed with your   occasional study of succinct and relevant material he'd dig up   for you, could very rapidly develop answers to conceptually   sophisticated questions. His help in your minute-by-minute   designing work could be extremely valuable-- availing you of   quick and realistic consideration of a great many new design   possibilities."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0356" text="&quot;Similarly, when it came to carrying   out a planned set of operations, it turned out that he   couldn't carry out all of the processes for you--he could   manage complex rules and procedures beautifully, but he would   break down when it came to steps that required what you might   call a larger view of the situation. But this wasn't so   bad. The set of routine processes which he could manage all   alone still provided you with a great deal of help--in fact,   you got to developing ways to build things so as to capitalize   upon his efficiency at these tasks. Then the processes which   were too much for him would be done by the two of you   together. He filled in all the routine stuff and you took care   of the steps that were beyond his capability Often the steps   you had to take care of were buried in the middle of a complex   routine whose over-all nature didn't have to be understood by   either of you for proper execution. Your helper would keep   track of the complex procedure and execute all the steps he   could. When he came to a step that was too big for him, he   would hand you enough information to allow you to take that   step, whereupon he would take over again until he met another   such step."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0357" text="&quot;As an inventor and builder of   devices that solve needs, you could become a great deal more   versatile and productive, applying your imagination,   intuition, judgment, and intelligence very effectively over a   much wider range of possibilities. You could tackle much more   complex and sophisticated projects, you could come up with   very much better results--neater, cheaper, more reliable, more   versatile, higher-quality performance--and you could work   faster. Your effectiveness in this domain of activity would be   considerably increased."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0358" text="&quot;So let's turn back to the working   domain which we are considering here. It is an intellectual   one, where the processing and shaping done is of conceptual   material rather than physical material. But between these two   types of working domains we nonetheless find closely analogous   conditions relative to the variety and sophistication of the   processes and techniques applicable to what nonroutine workers   do. Consider the intellectual domain of a creative problem   solver, and listen to me rattle off the names of some   specialized disciplines that come to mind. These esoteric   disciplines could very possibly contribute specialized   processes and techniques to a general worker in the   intellectual domain: Formal logic--mathematics of many   varieties, including statistics-- decision theory--game   theory--time and motion analysis--operations   research--classification theory--documentation theory--cost   accounting, for time, energy, or money--dynamic   programming--computer programming. These are only a few of the   total, I'm sure."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0359" text="&quot;This implies the range of   potentially applicable processes. Realize that there is also a   correspondingly large list of specialized materials   potentially usable in the fabrications of the intellectual   worker. I speak, of course, about the conceptual material in   the many different flelds of human interest. The things that I   have been de monstrating to you this afternoon were designed   to increase significantlY the range of both processes and   materials over which a human can practically operate within   this intellectual domain. You might say that we do this by   providing him with a very fast, agile vehicle, equipped with   all sorts of high-performance sensory equipment and   navigational aids, and carrying very flexible, powerful,   semi-automatic devices for operating upon the materials of   this domain. Not only that, but to provide an accurate   analogy, we have to give him a computer to help him organize   and monitor his activity and assess his results. We get direct   help on many levels of activity in our system, you see."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0360" text="&quot;But back to the topic of tools, and   the analogy of the inventor who was given the equipment and   the helper. Our augmented intellectual worker gets essentially   this same kind of service, only more so--a compounding of this   kind of service. Structuring our processes with care and   precision enables the computer to answer limited questions, to   guide you to relevant descriptions and specifications within   its structure, to execute complex but limited-grasp processes   on its own, and to take care of complex rule and   procedure-following bookkeeping in guiding the execution of   sophisticated composite processes. This actually makes it   practical to use many specialized processes and techniques   from very esoteric fields--to assess their applicability and   limitations quickly, to incorporate them intelligently into   the design and analysis of possible courses of action, and to   execute them efficiently."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0361" text="&quot;Our specialized processes represent   a beautiful collection of special tools. These tools are   designed by specialists, and they come equipped with operating   instructions, trouble-shooting hints, and complete design   data. Furthermore, we are provided with other tools that help   us determine the applicability of these tools by automatically   operating upon the instruction manual for us. Further, if   something goes wrong with one of these tools, if we want to   design a new tool of our own and make use of one of its   modular components, or if we want to rearrange some of its   adjustable features, we get considerable help in learning what   we have to know about its design, and in making adjustments or   coupling a part of it to another tool. Our shop contains an   efficient tool-making section, where we can design and build   our own tools from scratch, or by incorporating parts or all   of any other tools we have."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0362" text="&quot;Let me tell you of an interesting   feature stemming from my using such improved   Process-structuring techniques. An effective job of breaking   down a complex problem into humanly manageable steps--and this   is essentially what we seek in our process structuring--will   provide the human with something to do at every turn. This may   be to ponder or go searching, true enough--we aren't saying   that the steps are necessarily straightforward. But the point   I want to make is that no longer am I ever at a loss as to   what to do next.  I get stuck at times, to be sure, but when I   do I have clean and direct ways to satisfy myself that I   should just beat away at that roadblock for the time   being."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0363" text="&quot;And then, for beating away at the   roadblock, my bookkeeping regarding what I've tried, what   possibilities I've collected, and what my assumptions and   objectives are, is good enough to help tremendously in keeping   me from getting into loops and quandaries,in carefully ex   hausting possibilities, and in really analyzing my assumptions   and objectives. What's more, I'm not generating reams of   cyclic arguments, lists, calculations, or the like--either I'm   checking the validity of what I've already structured, or I am   correcting or expanding the structure. In other words, it   seems that the growth of my comprehension is sure and steady   up to the point at which I succeed or give up. If I give up, I   leave a structure which is very well organized to accommodate   a subsequent revisit with new data, possibilities,   assumptions, objectives, or tools. Also, I set up a sentinel   process that will operate in the future to help alert me to   concepts which may clear the block."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0364" text="&quot;This feature, of always having   satisfying actions to perform, and having a good feeling that   they are what I should be doing at that time, gives a   surprisingly contented, eager, and absorbing flavor to my   work. I guess it's an adult instance of the sort of change   observed in students when they were given teaching machines   that provided continuous participation and reinforcement."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0365" text="&quot;Anyway, with the quick flexibility   available to me for structuring arguments, and semi-automatic   application of special tagging and linking rules, I find it   really quite easy to construct, use, or modify sophisticated   process structuring. And I can turn right around and apply   this toward improving my abllity for structuring argumentg and   processes. The initial, straightforward capabilities for   manipulating symbol structures, that were more or less   obviously availed me by the computer have given to me a power   to participate in more sophisticated processes that capitalize   more fully upon the computer's capability--processes which are   very significant to my net effectiveness, and yet which   weren't particularly apparent to us as either possible or   useful in the days before we started harnessing computers to   the human's workaday activities in this direct way.'"/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0366" text="7. Team Cooperation">
          <outline hs:nid="0367" text="&quot;Let me mention another bonus feature   that wasn't easily fore seen.  We have experimented with   having several people work together from working stations that   can provide inter-communication via their computer or   computers.  That is, each person is equipped as I am here,   with free access to the common working structures. There   proves to be a really phenomenal boost in group effectiveness   over any previous form of cooperation we have experienced.   They can all work on the same symbol structure, wherever they   might wish.  If any two want to work simultaneously on the   same material, they simply duplicate and each starts reshaping   his version--and later it is easy to merge their   contributions. The whole team can join forces at a moment's   notice to 'pull together' on some stubborn little problem, or   to make a group decision. Most points of contention are   resolved quite naturally, over a period of time, as the   developing structure of argument bears out one, or the other,   or neither stand."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0368" text="&quot;No one can dominate the show, since   seldom do you have to 'listen' to the person concurrent to the   developments he is pursuing-- and yet at any time another   person can tune in on what he has done and is doing. One can   either take immediate personal issue with another about some   feature, anywhere in the structure where he might find   something done by the other to which he wants to take issue,   or he can append his objection and the associated argument   there where the disagreement lies, and tag this with a special   cue that signals a point of contention that must ultimately be   resolved. Any idea of the moment by any member can easily be   linked to where it can do some good. It gets to be like a real   whing-ding free-for-all--tremendously stimulating and   satisfying, and things really get done. You find yourself   'playing over your head' almost all of the time."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0369" text="&quot;We have been experimenting with   multi-disciplinary teams and are becoming especially excited   over the results. For instance, there is a great reduction of   the barrier that their different terminologies used to   represent, where one specialist couldn't really apply his   experien ce, intuition, or conceptual feel very well unless   the situation could be stated and framed in his accustomed   manner, and yet the others couldn't work with his   terminology. Here, they meet at their concept and terminology   interface and work out little shifts in meaning and use which   each can find digestible in his system, and which permit quite   precise definitions in each system of the terms and concepts   in the others. In studying the other's structuring then,   either of them can have his own definitions automatically   substituted for the other's special terms. Reduce this   language barrier, and provide the feature of their being able   to work in parallel independence on the joint structure, and   what seems to result is amplification of their different   capabilities."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0370" text="&quot;Remember the term, synergesis, that   has been associated in the literature with general structuring   theory? Well, here is something of an example. Three people   working together in this augmented mode seem to be more than   three times as effective in solving a complex problem as is   one augmented person working alone--and perhaps ten times as   effective as three similar men working together without this   computer-based augmentation.  It is a new and exhiliarating   experience to be working in this independent-parallel fashion   with some good men. We feel that the effect of these   augmentation developments upon group methods and group   capability is actually going to be more pronounced than the   effect upon individuals methods and capabilities, and we are   very eager to increase our research effort in that   direction.&quot;"/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0371" text="8. Miscellaneous Advanced   Concepts">
          <outline hs:nid="0372" text="&quot;I have dragged you through a lot of   different concepts and methods so far. I haven't been complete   because we won't have the time. But I have selected the sample   features to present to you with an eye toward giving you a   maximum chance to identify these as being something   significant to your own type of work. I avoided discussing   techniques applicable to esoteric problem-solving   processes--although some of them display especially   stimulating possibilities to those with appropriate   backgrounds. The ability to structure arguments organized in   English-language statements, and to make use of the linking   and tagging capabilities at all levels of the structure, can   be seen to lead to many interesting and promising new   capabilities for organizing your thoughts and actions. I think   you could picture learning these tricks and using them in your   own work."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0373" text="&quot;What I hoped to avoid by presenting   the system in this way, was losing your identification with   these possibilities by letting you get the mistaken impression   that an individual couldn't harness these techniques usefully   unless he first learned a lot of very sophisticated new   language, logic and math. It is true that the more of the   sophisticated tricks you learn, the more computer power you   can harness and the more powerful you become--but very   significant and personally thrilling practical problem-solving   capabilities have been developed by quite a few subjects who   were given only fifteen hours of training at one of these   stations. The training, incidentally, was all provided by the   computer without the presence of a human instructor. And the   people were of such diverse fields as sociology, biology,   engineering management, applied mathematics, and law. These   were all relatively high-level people, and they were   completely and unreservedly unanimous in their faith that   their increased capability would easily justify the capital   and operating outlay that we predicted for work stations of   this sort in five years, if the computer industry really were   to take this type of potential market seriously."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0374" text="&quot;What these people became capable of   was somewhat less than the range of capabilities that we have   discussed so far--but they would find it very natural to   develop further techniques on their own, and new teaching   programs could be provided them so that they could continue   learning the improved techniques turned out by a research   group such as ours here."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0375" text="&quot;But let me give you a brief view of   some of the more advanced concepts and techniques that have   evolved here, compatible with, but beyond, what I have so far   shown you. And &lt;i&gt;evolved&lt;/i&gt; is a good word to use here,   because our appreciation for the potential worth of   possibilities to be developed had to evolve too, and only came   with the experience and perspective gained in our earlier   work."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0376" text="&quot;For instance, we initially felt   that defining categories and relationships, and making a plan   for action, were things to be done as quickly as possible so   that we could get on with the work. But, as our means   developed for dealing with definitions and plans more   precisely, easily, and flexibly, we began to realize that they   in reality might be the most significant part of that   work. With our immenseiy increased capability for complex   bookkeeping relative to our interlaced hierarchies of   objectives, plans, and arguments, we found that defining a new   cate gory, searching for members or instances of it, or   applying its selection criteria were becoming ever conscious   and specific tasks."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0377" text="&quot;For instance, we began to find it   more and more useful to distinguish different categories or   types of process, different types of arguments, different   types of relationships, and different types of descriptions.   For a specific example, Ranganathan&lt;a href=&quot;#Notes-3-1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; once cited five specific   relationships that could obtain between two terms, where one   modifies the other. He called these &lt;i&gt;phase&lt;/i&gt; relations,   and named how one term could relate to the other as either   biasing it, being a tool used to study it, being an aspect of   it, being in comparison with it, or influencing it. Vickery   gave more examples, saying one could also have an effect on   the other, be a cause of it, be a use for it, be a substitute   for it, a source for it, an implication of it, be an   explanation of it, or be a representation of it. There are   even more categories mentioned in the literature."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0378" text="&quot;It was easy to form tags and links,   and we experimented with the gains to be made by consciously   specifying and indicating categories. It turned out to be a   very invigorating innovation, and we began to take more pains   with our structuring. It took longer to set up links and   nodes in our structures, to be sure, but we found on the one   hand that the structures became much cleaner and required   fewer members, and on the other hand that we could get   considerably more sophisticated help from the computer in   doing significant chores for us."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0379" text="&quot;We began to work up processes that   would help us establish categories, give them good   definitions, check their relationship with other established   categories, decide whether something fit a given category or   not, search for all possible members of it within a given   substructure, and so forth.  The very fact of using this   careful classifi cation within our structures allowed us to   get more powerful help from the computer in these   classification processes. I should mention that the   relationships among the terms in a sentence--the syntax if you   wish--had been given further specification tags than those I   showed you earlier, to remove ambiguities that hindered the   computer from going back to a statement and resolving the   syntactical structure. Also, ambiguities in the meaning of the   terms began to limit us, and we developed methods for removing   a good deal of this semantic ambiguity. This slowed us down,   as I've mentioned, but not as much as you'd think."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0380" text="&quot;Let me demonstrate one of the   advanced processes which has evolved.  It is heavily dependent   upon the very care in building structures that it so nicely   facilitates, and also upon several other developments. One of   these other developments stems from the concepts and   techniques of the semantic differential, as first introduced   by Osgood, Suci, and Tannenbaum &lt;a href=&quot;#Notes-3-2&quot;&gt;2&lt;/a&gt; back in 1957, and from some subsequent work by Mayer and Bagley &lt;a href=&quot;#Notes-3-3&quot;&gt;3&lt;/a&gt; on what they called semantic   models. These offered useful possibilities for establishing   quite precisely what meaning a concept has to an individual,   relative to his general conceptual framework, and for   representing this meaning in a specific way that was amenable   to computer manipulation."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0381" text="&quot;The other development upon which   this process to be exhibited is based, was stimulated by our   realizing that flexible cooperation with the computer was   calling for lots of little interactions. Our working   repertoire of small-task requests for computer service was   getting quite large, and it was proving to be extremely   valuable to use them and to be able to remember automatically   their procedures and designation codes. One of our research   psychologists had worked on human-memory phenomena before he   came with us, and had interested himself in mnemonic aids of   all sorts. He has developed some useful techniques for us to   use in connection with this, and other problems. Now let me   demonstrate this example of an advanced process for helping   work with categories."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0382" text="&quot;Suppose that I want to establish a   new category. Let's say that I have developed its description   in what you and I have been calling an argument structure. I   want to give it a name--a short and meaningful one--and I want   a good definition. In fact, I want a definition that the   computer can later work with. Look, I'll dig up a description   that is awaiting such a definition, and you can watch what   happens.&quot; So saying, Joe drummed on his keysets for a moment,   with one interruption when the computer flashed something on   the screen that was apparently a question about what he was   asking the computer to find for him. He finally had a network   display on one screen and a set of &quot;exploded&quot; statements on   the upper half of the other."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0383" text="&quot;I'm initiating the naming and   defining process now, and de signating to it the argument   structure represented by this network as what I want named and   defined. Watch what happens.&quot; A few more strokes on the   keyset, and he picked up his light pen in anticipation and   waited a few moments. A statement appeared in the lower half   of the second frame. He studied it a moment, then looked at   the statements above, picked out a node on the network with   the pen, and hit the keyset a few strokes. Another statement   flashed on almost immediately, with two familiar adjectives   placed below and a graduated line between them. Joe studied   this, referred to the statements above, flipped through   several levels of network portrayals, through a few statements   representing a couple of low-level nodes, reflected a moment,   and then pointed his light pen at a point on the graduated   line, part way between the adjectives, and pressed its   button."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0384" text="&quot;Actually, right now I'm   demonstrating a cooperative process execution technique. This   process is applying some very sophisticated criteria and using   some very sophisticated analytical techniques, and it is set   up so that it is actually the computer that is now in the   executive seat. I called for the process, but its execution   essentially involves the computer's asking me questions, and   feeding me successive questions according to how I've answered   the previous ones. It also is doing a lot of work on the   symbol structure that represents my description. It, with some   small help from me, is proceeding through a quite complex   analysis of the meaning that this incipient concept has to me,   and of certain types of mental associations that I may have   with it. I don't have to remember the special rules and forms   of analysis involved-- nevertheless, a very sophisticated   little capability is mine to use at will, taxing neither me   nor the computer.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0385" text="After a little over a minute of   these question-answer interactions, the process apparently   terminated, with four lines of special terms remaining on the   screen. &quot;This first line gives me two suggested names for this   category or concept. The first term is a newly coined formal   name, while the remaining three terms represent a compound   expression, involving established concepts, that can be used   also as a designation of the new category. The second line   furnishes me with an association chain to use for a mnemonic   aid in remembering the new name-- linking the name to several   characteristics of the concept. The name itself was selected   under mnemonic criteria, as well as to have a structure that   goes with its syntactic and semantic categories.  The third   line lists the names of some previously defined categories or   concepts that are the closest to this in meanlng--these before   the break were found to overlap, and the rest are just   close."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0386" text="&quot;The fourth line you recognize as a   statement form, perhaps. This is the definition, as developed   by the computer. It's in a special language and I won't try to   explain. I'll just mention that I can now study it, take it   apart, check its references, so to speak, and perhaps even see   if the computer and I might work out any changes or   improvementS But this process has been worked on pretty hard,   and we're getting definitions that are hard to improve."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0387" text="&quot;This special language, in which I   said the definition was stated, is a recent development. We   had found that the types of structuring we were developing had   a lot of extra tags and links that were traceable to the   complexity of the rules and combinatorial possibilities of the   English language with which the statements were construct We   finally got a clear enough picture of the requirements we   place upon a language in our use here that we could consider   designing our own special language. It turned out to be a   straightforward and rather simple language compared with   English, but much more precise and powerful. It proves rather   inflexible and awkward to use for speaking, but it provides   plenty of flexibility and power for expressing things in the   visual-symbol forms that we use. Its precision leaves no   syntactic ambiguity in a well-formed statement, and makes it   much easier to reduCe semantic ambiguity to the point where   the computer can deal with our statements much as it can with   mathematical or formal-logic expressionc"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0388" text="&quot;It is worth mentioning, too, that   we are experimenting with standard ways of structuring   arguments at levels higher than the state ments--sort of a   super grammar or syntax, with rules for assembling argument   modules of different function lnto what becomes a well-formed   higher-level argument module. There are some mixed feelings   around here about this possibility, but I myself have become   very much excited by it."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0389" text="&quot;Also we have been introducing   formal methods for manipulating what you might call reasonable   statements--as opposed to absolute true false statements which   the more familiar formal logic can manipulate. This finds   approval and faith in all of us here, but it is going a bit   slowly."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0390" text="&quot;Let's run over some of the results   we've seen to date, stemming from this new language and the   new semantic awareness thus given the computer.  If it can get   hold of and manipulate important aspects of the meaning that   is contained in our structures, it can develop answers to some   questions for which there existed only conceptually implicit   data. With practice and good strategy, asking questions like   this proves to be a tremendously effective way to gain   comprehension about a structure. We even have special   processes and symbol-structuring methods to help organize the   questioning and the answers. Some of the answers are a bit   costly, however--in computer time and charges--and we have to   watch the way we ask questions. Some of our researchers are   studying the language and structuring techniques relative to   this problem, and they think they see ways to change them to   make question answering generally more efficient. But this   sort of thing will likely always have its cost problems, as   far as we can see now.&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0391" text="He went on to say that the computer   now represents such an intelligent helper--although much less   so than any human helper they would hire--that they refer to   it as &lt;i&gt;the Clerk&lt;/i&gt;. They can make a tentative new   statement in the development of a structure, and have the   clerk look over the structure to detect inconsistency or   redundancy. The Clerk can also point out some of the   weaknesses in the statement, as well as some of the effects of   the statement upon the rest of the structure. They find that   they need to give less and less human concern for the details   of structure building--in-fact, the roles have reversed a   little. Where the human used to set up tags and links so the   computer could find its way around the structure as it ran   errands for him, they now have the computer studiously   installing similar things that are for the benefit of the   human when he is studying the structure."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0392" text="He also mentioned a recently   developed computer process that could go back over a record of   the human actions involved in establishing a given argument   structure and do a creditable job of picking out the steps   which contributed the most to the final picture--and also some   of those that contributed least. This process, and some of the   past data collected by its use, were becoming an important   addition to the planning review sessions, as well as to the   continuing development of improved methods. And apparently, it   had a surprisingly positive psychological effect upon members   of a cooperating team, where an objective means of relative   scoring was thus available."/>
        </outline>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="0393" text="Let yourself be disengaged now from your role in the above discussion-demonstration.  You have been through an experience that was designed to give you a feel for the sort of future developments that (to us) are predictable from &lt;i&gt;our&lt;/i&gt; conceptual framework. What is presented in Section II is an attempt at giving a &quot;straight&quot; presentation of the various conceptual segments of this framework, and Section III hopefully supplemented the formal presentation to provide you with a more complete picture of how we are oriented and what sorts of possibilities impel us."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0394" text="Assuming that we have communicated our conceptual framework in some reasonable form, we proceed below to discuss the question of what to do about it. Our approach to this question is with the view that energetic pursuit of this research could be of considerable significance to society, and that research should stem from a big enough picture of the over-all possibilities so that the contribution of any program, large or small, could have maximum long-range significance. Our recommendations are fairly general, and are cast in rather global terms, but we assert that they can be readily recast into the specific terms required of research planning to be done for a given project, within a given set of subgoals and research-activity constraints. In fact, we are now engaged in the process of so recasting these general recommendations into specific plans (for the experimental research to be pursued here at Stanford Research Institute)."/>
    </outline>
    <outline hs:nid="0395" text="IV. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS">
      <outline hs:nid="0396" text="A. OBJECTIVES FOR A RESEARCH PROGRAM">
        <outline hs:nid="0397" text="The report has put forth the hypothesis that the intellectual effectiveness of a human being is dependent upon factors which are subject to direct redesign in pursuit of an increase in that effectiveness. A conceptual framework is offered to help in giving consideration to this hypothesis, and an extensive and personalized projection into possible future developments is presented to help develop a feeling for the possi bilities and promise implicit in the hypothesis and conceptual structure."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0398" text="If this hypothesis and its glowing extrapolations were borne out in future developments, the consequences would be most exciting and assumedly beneficial to a problem-laden world. What is called for now is a test of this hypothesis and a calibration on the gains if any that might be realized by giving total-system design attention to human intellectual effectiveness.  If the test and calibration proved to be favorable, then we can set to work developing better and better augmentation systems for our problem solvers."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0399" text="In this light, we recommend a research program approach aimed at (Goal 1) testing the hypothesis, (Goal 2) developing the tools and tech niques for designing better augmentation systems, and (Goal 3) producing real-world augmentation systems that bring maximum gains over the coming years to the solvers of tough, critical problems. These goals and the resulting design for their pursuit are idealized, to be sure, but the results nonetheless have valuable aspects."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="0400" text="B. BASIC RESEARCH CONDITIONS">
        <outline hs:nid="0401" text="This should be an empirical approach on a total-system basis--i.e., doing coordinated study and innovation, among all the factors admitted to the problem, in conjunction with experiments that provide realistic action and interplay among these variables. The question of limiting these factors is considered later in the section. The recommended en vironment for this empirical, total-system approach, is a laboratory providing a computer-backed display and communication system of the general sort described in Section III-B. There should be no stinting on the capabilities provided--it is very important to learn what value any given artifact feature may offer the total system, and the only way to learn the value is to experiment with the feature. At this point no time will be taken to develop elaborate improvements in the art of time sharing, to provide real-time service to many users. This kind of development should be done as separate, backup work. The experimental lab should take the steps that are immediately available to provide all the service to the human that he needs in the experimental environment."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0402" text="Where economy demands that a computer not be idle during the time the augmented subject is not using it (which would be a rather large net fraction of the time, probably), and where sharing the computer with other real-time users for which demand delays are a problem, then the only sharing that should be considered is that with off-line computations for which there are no real-time service demands to be met. The computer can turn away from off-line users whenever the on-line worker needs attention of any sort."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="0403" text="C. WHOM TO AUGMENT FIRST">
        <outline hs:nid="0404" text="The experimental work of deriving, testing, and integrating innovations into a growing system of augmentation means must have a specific type of human task to try to develop more effectiveness for, to give unifying focus to the research. We recommend the particular task of computer programming for this purpose--with many reasons behind the selection that should come out in the following discussion. Some of the more direct reasons are these:">
          <outline hs:nid="0405" text="1. The programmer works on many problems, including large and realistic ones, which can be solved without interaction with other humans. This eases the experimental problem."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0406" text="2. Typical and realistic problems for the programmer to solve can be posed for experimental purposes that do not involve large amounts of working and reference in formation. This also eases the experimental problem."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0407" text="3. Much of the programmer's working data are computer programs (he also has, we assume, his own reasoning and planning notes), which have unambiguous syntactic and semantic form so that getting the computer to do useful tasks for him on his working data will be much facilitated--which helps very much to get early experience on the value a human can derlve from this kind of computer help."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0408" text="4. A programmer's effectiveness, relative to other programmers, can probably be measured more easily than would be the case for most other complex-problem solvers. For example, few other complex solutions or designs beside a program can so easily be given the rigorous test of &quot;Does it actually work?&quot;"/>
          <outline hs:nid="0409" text="5. The programmer's normal work involves interactions with a computer (although heretofore not generally on-line), and this will help researchers use the computer as a tool for learning about the programmer's habits and needs."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0410" text="6. There are some very challenging types of intellectual effort involved in programming. Attempting to increase human effectiveness therein will provide an excellent means for testing our hypothesis."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0411" text="7. Successful achievements in evolving new augmentation means which significantly improve a programmer's capability will not only serve to prove the hypothesis, but will lead directly to possible practical application of augmentation systems to a real-world problem domain that can use help."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0412" text="8. Computer programmers are a natural group to be the first in the &quot;real world&quot; to incorporate the type of augmentation means we are considering.  They already know how to work in formal methodologies with computers, and most of them are associated with activities that have to have computers anyway, so that the new tech niques, concepts, methods, and equipment will not seem so radical to them and will be relatively easy for them to learn and acquire."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0413" text="9. Successful achievements can be utilized within the augmentation-research program itself, to improve the effectiveness of the computer programming activity involved in studying and developing augmentation systems. The capability of designing, implementing, and modifying computer programs will be very important to the rate of research progress."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0414" text="Workers in an augmentation-research laboratory are the most natural people in the world to be the very first users of the augmentation means they develop, and we think that they represent an extremely important group of people to make more effective at their work."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="0415" text="D. BASIC REGENERATIVE FEATURE">
        <outline hs:nid="0416" text="The feature brought forth in Reason 9 above is something that offers tremendous value to the research objectives--i.e., the feeding back of positive research results to improve the means by which the researchers themselves can pursue their work The plan we are describing here is designed to capitalize upon this feature as much as possible, as will be evident to the reader as he progresses through this section. This positive-feedback (or regenerative) possibility derives from the facts that: (1) our researchers are developing means to increase the effectiveness of humans dealing with complex intellectual problems, and (2) our researchers are dealing with complex intellectual problems. In other words, they are developing better tools for a class to which they themselves belong. If their initial work needs the unifying focus of concentrating upon a specific tool, let that tool be one important to them and whose improvement will really help their own work."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="0417" text="E. TOOLS DEVELOPED AND TOOLS USED">
        <outline hs:nid="0418" text="This close similarity between tools being developed and the tools being used to do the developing, calls for some care in our terminology if we want to avoid confusion in our reasoning about their relationship. &quot;Augmentation means&quot; will be used to name the tools being developed by the augmentation research. &quot;Subject Information&quot; will be used to refer to description and reasoning concerned with the subject of these tools (as opposed to the method of research), and &quot;subject matter&quot; will refer to both subject information and physical devices being incorporated as artifacts in the augmentation means being developed. &quot;Tools and techniques&quot; will be used to name the tools being used to do that research, and are likely here to include special additions to language, artifact, &lt;i&gt;and&lt;/i&gt; methodology that particularly improve the special capabilities exercised in doing the research."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0419" text="An integrated set of tools and techniques will represent an art of doing augmentation research. Although no such art exists ready-made for our use, there are many applicable or adaptable tools and techniques to be borrowed from other disciplines. Psychology, computer programming and physical technology, display technology, artificial intelligence, industrial engineering (e.g., motion and time study), management science, systems analysis, and information retrieval are some of the more likely sources. These disciplines also offer initial subject matter for the research. Because this kind of diagramming can help more later on, we represent in Fig. 3 the situation of the beginning research drawing upon existing disciplines for subject matter and tools and techniques."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0420" text="The program begins with general dependence upon other, existing disciplines for its subject matter (solid arrow) and its tools and tech niques (dashed arrow). Goal 1 has been stated as that of verifying the basic hypothesis that concerted augmentation research can increase the intellectual effectiveness of human problem solvers.">
          <outline hs:nid="0421" text="&lt;img src=&quot;figures/augmentinghumanintellect/fig3.gif&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Initial Augmentation-Research Program"/>
        </outline>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="0422" text="F. RESEARCH PLAN FOR ACTIVITY A l">
        <outline hs:nid="0423" text="The dominant goal of Activity A 1 (Goal 1, as in Fig 3) is to test our hypothesis. Its general pursuit of augmenting a programmer is designed to serve this goal, but also to be setting the stage for later direct pursuit of Goals 2 and 3 (i.e., developing tools and techniques for augmentation research and producing real-world augmentation systems)."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0424" text="Before we discuss the possible subject matter through which this research might work, let us treat the matter of its tools and techniques. Not too long ago we would have recommended (and did), in the spirit of taking the long-range and global approach, that right from the beginning of a serious program of this sort there should be established a careful and scientific methodology. Controlled experiments, with special re search subjects trained and tested in the use of experimental new aug mentation means, careful monitoring, record-keeping, and evaluative procedures, etc. This was to be accompanied by a thorough search through disciplines and careful incorporation of useful findings."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0425" text="Still in the spirit of the long-range and global sort of planning, but with a different outlook (based, among other things, upon an increased appreciation for the possibilities of capitalizing upon regeneration), we would now recommend that the approach be quite different. We basically recommend A 1 research adhering to whatever formal methodology is required for (a) knowing when an improvement in effectiveness has been achieved, and (b) knowing how to assign &lt;i&gt;relative&lt;/i&gt; value to the changes derived from two competing innovations."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0426" text="Beyond this, and assuming dedication to the goal, reasonable maturity, and plenty of energy, intelligence, and imagination, we would recommend turning loose a group of four to six people (or a number of such groups) to develop means that augment their own programming capability We would recommend that their work begin by developing the capability for composing and modifying simple symbol structures, in the manner pictured in Section III-B-2, and work up through a hierarchy of intermediate capabilities toward the single high-level capability that would encompass computer programming. This would allow their embryonic and free wheeling &quot;art of doing augmentation research&quot; to grow and work out its kinks through a succession of increasingly complex system problems--and also, redesigning a hierarchy from the bottom up somehow seems the best approach"/>
        <outline hs:nid="0427" text="As for the type of programming to tell them to become good at--tell them, &quot;the kind that you find you have to do in your research.&quot; In other words, their job assignment is to develop means that will make them more effective at doing their job. Figure 4 depicts this schematically, with the addition to what was shown in Fig. 3 of a connection that feeds the subject-matter output of their research (augmentation means for their type of programming problems) right back into their activity as improved tools and techniques to use in their research.">
          <outline hs:nid="0428" text="&lt;img src=&quot;figures/augmentinghumanintellect/fig4.gif&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Regeneration"/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0429" text="If they are making head way, it won't take any carefully worded criterion of effectiveness nor any great sophistication in measurement technique to tell that they are more effective with the augmentation means than without--being quicker to &quot;design and build&quot; a running program to meet given processing specifications or being quicker to pick up a complex existing program, gain comprehension as necessary, and find its flaws or rebuild it. On the other hand, if no gains are really obvious after a year or so, then it is time to begin incorporating more science in their approach.  By then there will be a good deal of basic orientation as to the nature of the problem to which &quot;science&quot; is to be applied."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0430" text="What we are recommending in a way is that the augmented capability hierarchy built by this group represent more a quick and rough scaffolding than a carefully engineered structure. There is orientation to be derived from climbing up quickly for a look that will be of great value. For instance, key concepts held initially, that would have been laboriously riveted into the well-engineered structure, could well be rendered obsolete by the &quot;view&quot; obtained from higher in the hierarchy. And besides, it seems best to get the quick and rough improvements built and working first, so that the research will benefit not only from the orientation obtained, but from the help that these improvements will provide when used as tools and techniques to tackle the tougher or slower possibilities. As progress begins to be made toward Goal l,the diagram of Fig. 3 will become modified by feeding the subject-matter output (augmentation means for computer programmers) back into the input as new tools and techniques to be used by the researchers."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0431" text="We would suggest establishing a sub-activity within A 1, whose purpose and responsibility is to keep an eye on the total activity, assess and evaluate its progress and try to provide orientation as to where things stand and where attention might be beneficial."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0432" text="A few words about the subject matter through which Activity A 1 may progress. The researchers will think of simple innovations and try them in short order--and perhaps be stimulated in the process by realizing how handy some new feature would be that would help them whlp up trlal processes in a hurry. They will know of basic capabllitles they want to work toward for structuring their argumentsJ their planning, their factual data, etc., 50 that they can more easily get computer help in developing themJ in analyzing and pursuing comprehension within themJ and in modifying or extending them. They wlll try different types of structuringJ and see how easy it ls to design computer processes to manipulate them or composite processes to do total useful work with them."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0433" text="They can work up programs that can search through other programs for answers to questions about them--questions whose answers serve the processes of debugging, extending, or modifying. Perhaps there will be ways they adopt in the initial structuring of a program--e.g., appending stylized descriptive cues here and there--that have no function in the execution of that program, but which allow more sophisticated fact retrieval therein by the computer. Perhaps such cue tagging would allow development of programs which could automatically make fairly sophisticated modifications to a tagged program. Maybe there would evolve semi-automatic &quot;super-compilers,&quot; with which the programmer and the computer leap-frog over the obstacles to formulating exact specifications for a computer (or perhaps composlte) process and getting it into whatever programming language they use."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="0434" text="G. A SECOND PHASE IN THE RESEARCH PROGRAM">
        <outline hs:nid="0435" text="The research of A 1 could probably spiral upwards indefinitely, but once the hypothesis (see Section IV-A) has been reasonably verified and the first of our stated objectives satisfied, it would be best to re-organize the program. To describe our recommendation here, let us say that two research activies, A 2 and A 3, are set up in place of A 1. Whether A 1 is split, or turned into A 2 and a new group formed for A 3, does not really matter here--we are speaking of separate activities, corresponding to the responsible pursuit of separate goals, that will benefit from close cooperation."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0436" text="To Activity A 2 assign the job of developing augmentation means to be used specifically as tools and techniques by the researchers of both A 2 and A 3. This establishes a continuing pursuit for Objective 2 of Section IY-A. A 2 will now set up a sub-activity that studies the problems of all the workers in A 2 and A 3 and isolates a succession of capabilities for which the research of A 2 will develop means to augment. Activity A 2 should be equipped with the best artifacts available to an experimental laboratory."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0437" text="To Activity A 3 assign the job of developing augmentation systems that can be practically adopted into real-world problem situations. This provides a direct and continuing pursuit of Goal 3 of Section IV-A. It is to be assumed that the first real-world system that A 3 will design will be for computer programmers. For this it might well be able to clean up the &quot;laboratory model&quot; developed in A 1, modify it to fit the practical limitations represented by real-world economics, working environments, etc., and offer it as a prototype for practical adoption. Or Activity A 3 might do a redesign, benefitting from the experience with the first model."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0438" text="Activity A 3 will need a subactivity to study its potential users and guide the succession of developments that it pursues. Activity A 2 in its continued pursuit of increased effectiveness among workers in idealized environment, will be the source for basic subject matter in the developments of A 3, as well as for its tools and techniques. From the continously expanding knowledge and developments of A 2, A 3 can organize successive practical systems suitable for ever more general utilization."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0439" text="We have assumed that what was developed in A 1 was primarily language and methodology, with the artifacts not being subject to appreciable modification during the research. By this second phase, enough has been learned about the trends and possibilities for this type of on-line man-computer cooperation that some well-based guidance can be derived for the types of modifications and extensions to artifact capability that would be most valuable. Activity A 2 could continue to derive long-range guidance for equipment development, perhaps developing laboratory innovations in computers, display systems, storage systems, or communication systems, but at least experimenting with the incorporation of the new artifact innovations of others."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0440" text="An example of the type of guidance derived from this research might be extracted from the concepts discussed in Section-C-5 (Structure Types).  We point out there that within the computer there might be built and manipulated symbol structures that represent better images of the concept structures of interest to the human than would any symbol structure with which the human could work directly. To the human, the computer represents a special instrument which can display to him a comprehensible image of any characteristic of this structure that may be of interest. From our conceptual viewpoint, this would be a source of tremendous power for the human to harness, but it depends upon the computer being able to &quot;read&quot; all of the stored information (which would be in a form essentially incomprehensible to a human). Now, if this conjecture is borne out there would be considerably less value in micro-image information-storage systems than is now generally presumed. In other words, we now conjecture that future reference information will be much more valuable if stored in computer-sensible form. The validity of this and other conjectures stemming from our conceptual framework could represent critical questions to manufacturers of information systems."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0441" text="It is obvious that this report stems from generalized &quot;large-view&quot; thinking. To carry this to something of a final view, relative to the research recommendations, we present Fig. 5, which should be largely self-explanatory by this time. Activity A 2 is lifting itself by the bootstraps up the scale of intellectual capability, and its products are siphoned to the world via A 3. Getting acceptance and application of the new techniques to the most critical problems of our society might in fact &lt;i&gt;be&lt;/i&gt; the most critical problem of all by then, and Activity A 4 would be one which should be given special help from A 3."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0442" text="There is another general and long-range picture to present. This is in regard to a goal for a practically usable system that A 3 would want to develop as soon as possible. You might call this the first general Computer Augmentation System--CAUG-I (pronounced &quot;cog-one&quot;).">
          <outline hs:nid="0443" text="&lt;img src=&quot;figures/augmentinghumanintellect/fig5.gif&quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A Total Program.  Suggested relationship among the   major activities in achieving the stated objective   (essentially, of significantly boosting human power in A 4 and   U 1). Solid lines represent subject information or artifacts   used or generated within an activity, and dashed lines   represent special tools and techniques for doing the activity   in the box to which they connect. Subject product of an   activity (output solid) can be used as working material (input   solid) or as tools and techniques (input dashed). Tools and   techniques as used or needed in an activity (output dashed)   can be used either to work on (input solid) or as tools and   techniques to work with (input dashed)."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0444" text="It would be derived from what was assessed to be the basic set of capabilities needed by both a general-problem-solvlng human and an augmentation researcher. Give CAUG-I to a real-world problem solver in almost any discipline, and he has the basic capabilities for structuring his arguments and plans, organizing special files, etc., that almost anyone could expect to need.  In addition to these direct-application on capabilities, however, are provided those capabilities necessary for analyzing problem tasks, developing and evaluating new process capabilities, etc., as would be required for him to extend the CAUG-I system to match to the special features of his problem area and the way he likes to work."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0445" text="In other words, CAUG-I represents a basic problem-solving tool kit, plus an auxiliary tool-makers tool kit with which to extend the basic tool kit to match the particular job and particular worker. In subsequent phases, Activity A 3 could be turning out successive generations (CAUG-II, CAUG-III, etc.) each incorporating features that match an ever-more-powerful capability hierarchy in an ever-more-efficient manner to the basic capabilities of the human."/>
      </outline>
    </outline>
    <outline hs:nid="0446" text="V. SUMMARY">
      <outline hs:nid="0447" text="This report has treated one over-all view of the augmentation of human intellect. In the report the following things have been done: (1) An hypothesis has been presented. (2) A conceptual framework has been constructed. (3) A &quot;picture&quot; of augmented man has been described. (4) A research approach has been outlined. These aspects will be re viewed here briefly:">
        <outline hs:nid="0448" text="1. An hypothesis has been stated that the intellectual effectiveness of a human can be significantly improved by an engineering-like approach toward redesigning changeable components of a system."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0449" text="2. A conceptual framework has been constructed that helps provide a way of looking at the implications and possibilities surrounding and stemming from this hypothesis. Briefly, this framework provides the realization that our intellects are already augmented by means which appear to have the following characteristics:">
          <outline hs:nid="0450" text="A. The principal elements are the language artifacts, and methodology that a human has learned to use."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0451" text="B. The elements are dynamically interdependent within an operating system."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0452" text="C. The structure of the system seems to be hierarchical, and to be best considered as a hierarchy of process capabilities whose primitive components are the basic human capabilities and the functional capabilities of the artifacts--which are organized successively into ever-more-sophisticated capabilities."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0453" text="D. The capabilities of prime interest are those associated with manipulating symbols and concepts in support of organizing and executing processes from which are ultimately derived human comprehension and problem solutions."/>
          <outline hs:nid="0454" text="E. The automation of the symbol manipulation associated with the minute-by-minute mental processes seems to offer a logical next step in the evolution of our intellectual capability."/>
        </outline>
        <outline hs:nid="0455" text="3. A picture of the implications and promise of this framework has been described, based upon direct human communication with a computer. Here the many ways in which the computer could be of service, at successive levels of augmented capability, have been brought out. This picture is fanciful, but we believe it to be conservative and representative of the sort of rich and significant gains that are there to be pursued."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0456" text="4. An approach has been outlined for testing the hypothesis of Item (1) and for pursuing the &quot;rich and significant gains&quot; which we feel are promised. This approach is designed to treat the redesign of a capability hierarchy by reworking from the bottom up, and yet to make the research on augmentation means progress as fast as possible by deriving practically usable augmentation systems for real-world problem solvers at a maximum rate. This goal is fostered by the recommendation of incorporating positive feedback into the research development--i.e., concentrating a good share of the basic-research attention upon augmenting those capabilities in a human that are needed in the augmentation-research workers. The real-world applications would be pursued by designing a succession of systems for specialists, whose progression corresponds to the increasing generality of the capabilities for which coordinated augmentation means have been evolved. Consideration is given in this rather global approach to providing potential users in different domains of intellectual activity with the basic general-purpose augmentation system from which they themselves can construct the special featuresof a system to match their job, and their ways of working--or it could be used on the other hand by researchers who want to pursue the development of sepcial augmentation systems for special fields."/>
      </outline>
    </outline>
    <outline hs:nid="0457" text="VI. CONCLUSIONS">
      <outline hs:nid="0458" text="Three principal conclusions may be drawn concerning the significance and implications of the ideas that have been presented."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0459" text="First any possibility for improving the effective utilization of the intellectual power of society's problem solvers warrants the most serious consideration. This is because man's problem-solving capability represents possibly the most important resource possessed by a society. The other contenders for first importance are all critically dependent for their development and use upon this resource. Any possibility for evolving an art or science that can couple directly and significantly to the continued development of that resource should warrant doubly serious consideration."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0460" text="Second, the ideas presented are to be considered in both of the above senses: the direct-development sense and the 'art of development' sense.  To be sure, the possibilities have long-term implications, but their pursuit and initial rewards await us now. By our view, we &lt;i&gt;do not&lt;/i&gt; have to wait until we learn how the human mental processes work, we &lt;i&gt;do not&lt;/i&gt; have to wait until we learn how to make computers more intelligent or bigger or faster, &lt;i&gt;we can&lt;/i&gt; begin developing powerful and economically feasible augmentation systems on the basis of what we now know and have. Pursuit of further basic knowledge and improved machines will continue into the unlimited future, and will want to be integrated into the &quot;art&quot; and its improved augmentation systems--but getting started now will provide not only orientation and stimulation for these pursuits, but will give us improved problem-solving effectiveness with which to carry out the pursuits."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0461" text="Third, it becomes increasingly clear that there should be action now--the sooner the better--action in a number of research communities and on an aggressive scale. We offer a conceptual framework and a plan for action, and we recommend that these be considered carefully as a basis for action If they be considered but found unacceptable, then at least serious and continued effort should be made toward developing a more acceptable conceptual framework within which to view the over-all approach, toward developing a more acceptable plan of action, or both."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0462" text="This is an open plea to researchers and to those who ultimately motivate, finance, or direct them, to turn serious attention toward the possibility of evolving a dynamic discipline that can-treat the problem of improving intellectual effectiveness in a total sense. This discipline should aim at producing a continuous cycle of improvements--increased understanding of the problem, improved means for developing new aug mentation systems, and improved augmentation systems that can serve the world's problem solvers in general and this discipline's workers in particular. After all, we spend great sums for disciplines aimed at understanding and harnessing nuclear power. Why not consider developing a discipline aimed at understanding and harnessing &quot;neural power?&quot; In the long run, the power of the human intellect is really much the more important of the two."/>
    </outline>
    <outline hs:nid="0463" text="NOTES">
      <outline hs:nid="0464" text="Chapter 1">
        <outline hs:nid="0465" hs:label="Notes-1-1" text="Notes-1-1: Kennedy and Putt (see Ref. &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-1&quot;&gt;1&lt;/a&gt; in the list at the end of the report) bring out the importance of the conceptual framework to the process of research. They point out that new, multi-disciplinary research generally finds no such framework to fit within, that a framework of sorts would grow eventually, but that an explicit framework-search phase preceding the research is much to be preferred."/>
      </outline>
      <outline hs:nid="0466" text="Chapter 3">
        <outline hs:nid="0467" hs:label="Notes-3-1" text="Notes-3-1: The reference is to p. 42 of B. C. Vickery's Classification and Indexing in Science which is Ref. &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-26&quot;&gt;26&lt;/a&gt; at the end of the report."/>
        <outline hs:nid="0468" hs:label="Notes-3-2" text="Notes-3-2: The reference is to The Measure of Meaning, which is Ref. &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-27&quot;&gt;27&lt;/a&gt;"/>
        <outline hs:nid="0469" hs:label="Notes-3-3" text="Notes-3-3: See p. 104 of Ref. &lt;a href=&quot;#Ref-28&quot;&gt;28&lt;/a&gt;"/>
      </outline>
    </outline>
    <outline hs:nid="0470" text="REFERENCES">
      <outline hs:nid="0471" hs:label="Ref-1" text="Ref-1: Kennedy, J. L and Putt, G. H., &quot;Administration of Research in a Research Corporation,&quot; RAND Corporation Report P-847 (20 April 1956)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0472" hs:label="Ref-2" text="Ref-2: Ashby, Ross, &lt;i&gt;Design For a Brain&lt;/i&gt; (John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York City, N. Y., 1960)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0473" hs:label="Ref-3" text="Ref-3: Ashby, Ross, &quot;Design for an Intelligence-Amplifier,&quot; &lt;i&gt;Automata Studies&lt;/i&gt;, edited by C. E. Shannon and J. McCarthy, pp. 215-234 (Princeton University Press, 1956)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0474" hs:label="Ref-4" text="Ref-4: Korzybski, A , &lt;i&gt;Science and Sanity&lt;/i&gt;, 1st Ed. (International non Aristotelian Library Publishing Co., Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1933)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0475" hs:label="Ref-5" text="Ref-5: Whorf, B. L., &lt;i&gt;Language, Thought, and Reality&lt;/i&gt; (MIT &amp;amp; John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, Inc., New York City, N.Y., 1956)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0476" hs:label="Ref-6" text="Ref-6: Bush, Vannevar, &quot;As We May Think,&quot; &lt;i&gt;The Atlantic Monthly&lt;/i&gt; (July 1945)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0477" hs:label="Ref-7" text="Ref-7: Newell, A. (editor), &lt;i&gt;Information Processing Language-V Manual&lt;/i&gt; (Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1961)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0478" hs:label="Ref-8" text="Ref-8: McCarthy, J., &quot;LISP 1.5 Programmer's Manual,&quot; Computation Center and Research Laboratory of Electronics, MIT (14 July 1961)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0479" hs:label="Ref-9" text="Ref-9: Gelernter, H., Hansen, J. R., and Gerberich, C. L., &quot;A Fortran Compiled List-Processing Language,&quot; &lt;i&gt;Journal of the Assoc. for Computing Machinery&lt;/i&gt; (April 1960)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0480" hs:label="Ref-10" text="Ref-10: Yngve, V. H., &quot;Introduction to COMIT Programming,&quot; Technical Report, Research Laboratories of Electronics and Computation Center, MIT (5 November 1961)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0481" hs:label="Ref-11" text="Ref-11: Yngve, V. H., &quot;COMIT Programmer's Reference Manual,&quot; Technical Report, Research Laboratories of Electronics and Computation Center, MIT (5 November 1961)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0482" hs:label="Ref-12" text="Ref-12: Perlis, A. J. and Thornton, C., &quot;Symbol Manipulation by Threaded Lists,&quot; &lt;i&gt;Communications of the ACM&lt;/i&gt;, Vol. 3, No.  4 (April 1960)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0483" hs:label="Ref-13" text="Ref-13: Carr, J. W., III, &quot;Recursive Subscripting Compilers and List-Type Memories,&quot; &lt;i&gt;Communications of the ACM&lt;/i&gt;, Vol. 2, pp. 4-6 (February 1959)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0484" hs:label="Ref-14" text="Ref-14: Weizenbaum, J., &quot;Knotted List Structures,&quot; &lt;i&gt;Communications of the ACM&lt;/i&gt;, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 161-165 (March 1962)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0485" hs:label="Ref-15" text="Ref-15: Licklider, J. C. R., &quot;Man-Computer Symbiosis,&quot; &lt;i&gt;IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics&lt;/i&gt; (March 1960)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0486" hs:label="Ref-16" text="Ref-16: Ulam, S. M., &lt;i&gt;A Collection of Mathematical Problems&lt;/i&gt;, p. 135 (Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, N.Y., 1960)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0487" hs:label="Ref-17" text="Ref-17: Good, I. J., &quot;How Much Science Can You Have at Your Fingertips?&quot; &lt;i&gt;IBM Journal of Research and Development&lt;/i&gt;, Vol. 2, No. 4 (October 1958)"/>
      <outline hs:nid="0488" hs:label="Ref-18" text="Ref-18: Ramo, Simon, &quot;A New Technique of Education,&quot; &lt;i&gt;IRE Trans. on Education&lt;/i&gt; (June 1958)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0489" hs:label="Ref-19" text="Ref-19: Ramo, Simon, &quot;The Scientific Extension of the Human Intellect,&quot; &lt;i&gt;Computers and Automation&lt;/i&gt; (February 1961)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0490" hs:label="Ref-20" text="Ref-20: Fein, Louis, &quot;The Computer-Related Science (Synnoetics) at a University in the Year 1975,&quot; unpublished paper (December 1960)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0491" hs:label="Ref-21" text="Ref-21: Licklider, J. C. R. and Clark, W. E., &quot;On-Line Man-Computer Communication,&quot; &lt;i&gt;Proceedings Spring Joint Computer Conference,&lt;/i&gt; Vol. 21, pp. 113-128 (National Press, Palo Alto, California, May 1962)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0492" hs:label="Ref-22" text="Ref-22: Culler, G. J. and Huff, R. W., &quot;Solution of Non-Linear Integral Equations Using On-Line Computer Control,&quot; Ramo-Wooldridge, Canoga Park, California, paper for presentation at SJCC, San Francisco (May 1962)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0493" hs:label="Ref-23" text="Ref-23: Teager, H. M., &quot;Real-Time, Time-Shared Computer Project,&quot; report, MIT, Contract Nonr-1841(69) DSR 8644 (1 July 1961)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0494" hs:label="Ref-24" text="Ref-24: Teager, H. M., &quot;Systems Considerations in Real-Time Computer Usage,&quot; paper presented at ONR Symposium on Automated Teaching (12 October 1961)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0495" hs:label="Ref-25" text="Ref-25: Randa, Glenn C., &quot;Design of a Remote Display Console,&quot; Report ESL, R-132, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts (available through ASTIA) (February 1962)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0496" hs:label="Ref-26" text="Ref-26: Vickery, B. C., &lt;i&gt;Classification and Indexing in Science&lt;/i&gt;, p. 42 (Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1959)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0497" hs:label="Ref-27" text="Ref-27: Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., and Tannenbaum, P. H., &lt;i&gt;The Measurement of Meaning&lt;/i&gt; (University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1957)."/>
      <outline hs:nid="0498" hs:label="Ref-28" text="Ref-28: &lt;i&gt;Current Research and Development in Scientific Documentation No. 6&lt;/i&gt; NSF-60-25, p. 104 (National Science Foundation, May 1960)."/>
    </outline>
    </outline>
  </body>
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